First Book in Composition,
Applying
the Principles
of Grammar to the Art of Composing:
Also, Giving Full Directions for
Punctuation;
Especially Designed for the Use of Southern
Schools:
Electronic Edition.
Branson, L. (Levi), b. 1832
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University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
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Library of Congress Subject Headings, 21st edition, 1998
- LC Subject Headings:
- English language -- Composition and exercises.
- English language -- Grammar.
- Textbooks -- Confederate States of America.
- Education -- Confederate States of America.
- Confederate States of America -- Juvenile literature.
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FIRST BOOK
IN
COMPOSITION,
APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR
TO THE ART OF
COMPOSING:
ALSO,
GIVING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR PUNCTUATION;
ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF
SOUTHERN SCHOOLS,
BY
L. BRANSON, A.M.
RALEIGH:
BRANSON, FARRAR & CO.
1863.
Page verso
Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1862,
BY
L. BRANSON, A. M.
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Confederate States, for the Eastern
District of North Carolina.
A.M. GORMAN, PRINTER.
Page 3
PREFACE.
No subject is more difficult to the mind of the Pupil, than that of Composition; and yet, strange as it may seem, he is usually expected to compose without any assistance whatever from books. -- Teachers have sometimes objected to the use of works on Composition, lest the mind of the pupil should be cramped, or the style should become artificial, but these are groundless objections. Every student's style is compelled to be more or less artificial in acquirement and yet it may be perfectly natural in its disposition.
To acquire a love of the subject, is a great point gained in the acquisition of any science. This work is designed to make the art of composing both easy and agreeable.
As soon as the student can read intelligibly, he may commence the study of this Book. The exercises found, will naturally lead him to the habit of writing, and gradually draw out the mind to the practice of thinking, and finally to that of independent composition.
This Book if studied before English Grammar will greatly aid the pupil in the acquisition of that science, while the more advanced student may find it altogether profitable.
In the hope that it may be useful to the young of our great rising Confederacy, the work is respectfully offered to the public.
Page 5
CONTENTS.
- I. Letters, Vowels, Consonants, Syllables . . . . . 9.
- II. Words, Articles . . . . . 10.
- III. Nouns, . . . . . 12.
- IV. Pronouns. . . . . 13.
- V. Adjectives, . . . . . 15.
- VI. Verbs, . . . . . 16.
- VII. Adverbs, . . . . . 17.
- VIII. Exercise on Adverbs, . . . . . 19.
- IX. Conjunctions, . . . . . 20
- X. Prepositions, . . . . . 22.
- XI. Interjections, . . . . . 24.
- XII. A Review, . . . . . 26.
- XIII. Miscellaneous Exercise, . . . . . 27.
- XIV. Miscellaneous Exercise, . . . . . 28.
- XV. The Subject. . . . .28.
- XVI. Exercise, . . . . . 31.
- XVII. The Object--Transitive & Intransitive Verbs, . . . . . 32.
- XVIII. Personal, Relative, Interogative and Adjective Pronouns, . . . . . 35.
- XIX. The Relative Pronoun and Relative Clause, . . . . . 38
- XX. Participles--Participial Clauses, . . . . . 39.
- XXI. A Review, . . . . . 41.
- XXII. Sentences, Phrases, Clauses, Apposition, . . . . . 43
- XXIII. Composition, . . . . . . 46.
- XXIV. Description, . . . . . 48.
- No. 1. Strawberries, . . . . .50
- " 2. Ants, . . . . .52
- " 3. Frogs, . . . . .53
- " 4. Flies, . . . . .55
- " 5. Bird's-nests, . . . . . 56
- " 6. Chesnuts, . . . . .58
- " 7. Katy-dids, . . . . .59
- " 8. Apple Trees, . . . . .61
- " 9. Rain, . . . . .62
- " 10. Frost, . . . . . 64
- " 11. Snow, . . . . .66
- " 12. Ice, . . . . . .67
- " 13. Night, . . . . .69
- " 14. Morning, . . . . 71
- " 15. Trees, . . . . .73
- " 16. Flowers. . . . . .74
SUBJECTS.
Page 6
- 1. Period, Interrogation Point, Exclamation Point, . . . . .77
- 2. Colon and Semicolon, . . . . . 79
- 3. Comma, . . . . .80
- 4. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .82
- 5. Dash, Parenthesis, Brackets, . . . . .84
- 6. Other Marks used in Writing, . . . . .86
- 7. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .87
- 8. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .88
- 9. Rules for the use of Capitals, . . . . .90
- 10. A Review, . . . . .92
- 11. A Review, . . . . .93
PUNCTUATION.
- No. 1. Autumn Leaves, . . . . .95
- " 2. Moss, . . . . .97
- " 3. Wild Flowers, . . . . .99
- " 4. Roses, . . . . .101
- " 5. Water-Lilies, . . . . .102
- " 6. Recess, . . . . .104
- " 7. Blind Man's Buff, . . . . .106
- No. 8. A Pic-Nic, . . . . .108
- " 9. A Sleigh Ride, . . . . .110
- " 10. A Menagerie, . . . . .112
- " 11. A Fair, . . . . . 114
- " 12. Thanksgiving, . . . . .116
- " 13. Fourth of July, . . . . .117
- " 14. Christmas, . . . . .119
DIVISION II.
- No. 1. A Mountain, . . . . .121
- " 2. A Brook, . . . . .123
- " 3. A Waterfall, . . . . .125
- " 4. A Spring, . . . . .127
- " 5. A Moonlight Scene, . . . . .129
- No. 6. A Thunder Storm, . . . . .130
- " 7. A Snow Storm . . . . .132
- " 8. An Aurora Borealis, . . . . .134
- " 9. A Sunrise, . . . . .136
- "10. A Sunset. . . . . .138
DIVISION III.
Page 9
FIRST BOOK IN COMPOSITION.
CHAPTER I.
LETTERS, VOWELS, CONSONANTS, SYLLABLES.
What is a letter?
A letter represents a sound.
How many letters are used in the English Language?
Twenty-six.
Repeat them.
A, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.
What are the letters called, when taken all together?
THE ALPHABET.
How are these letters classified?
Into two distinct classes.
What are these classes called?
Vowels and consonants.
Which represent the heavier tones?
The Tonics--a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not commencing a syllable.
What are Tonic sounds?
Sounds made with the mouth open and the tongue not raised.
Which letters represent the next heavier sounds?
The Subtonics--c, d, g, j, l, m, ng, r, v, w, y, z, wh, th, and w and y beginning a syllable.
What are Sub-Tonic sounds?
Sounds made farther down the throat, and less distinct than the Tonic.
Page 10
Which letters represent the aspirations or breathings?
The At-Tonics, f, h, k, p, q, s, t, th.
What are At-Tonic sounds?
Sounds without any tone, simply breathings.
Of how many sounds is the word goodness composed?
Two, good and ness.
What are small words, when used to compose larger ones, called?
Syllables.
What is a syllable?
One of the natural divisions of a word.
How many syllables does a word generally have?
One for each distinct vowel sound; el-e-phant.
Are all words of more than one syllable really compound words?
They are.
When is a syllable compound?
When it is composed of more than one letter, as, a-word.
What do letters compose?
Syllables.
What do syllables compose?
Words.
What do words compose?
Members or clauses.
What do members compose?
Sentences.
What do sentences compose?
Chapters.
CHAPTER II.
WORDS--ARTICLES.
How do you convey your thoughts?
By Words.
What does a word indicate when spoken?
An idea.
Page 11
Through what medium does it convey an idea to the mind?
The ear.
What does a word indicate when written?
An Idea.
Through what medium?
The eye.
NOTE. We hear spoken words, and see those which are written.
How are words divided?
Into parts of speech.
Why are they thus divided?
For convenience.
How many parts of speech and what are they called?
Nine: viz., Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection.
Which is the simplest part of speech?
The Article.
What is an Article?
An Article is a word placed before another word to limit its meaning.
How many Articles are there?
Two; A and The.
When we say the man, what do we mean?
Some particular man.
When we say a man, what is meant?
Any man.
What is the called?
A definite Article.
Why?
Because it points out some person or thing definitely.
What is a called?
An indefinite Article.
Why?
Because it points out some person or thing indefinitely.
Why is n used after a frequently, as an enemy?
To prevent two tonic sounds from coming together.
Page 12
Where is a used?
A is used before words commencing with sub-tonic sounds, as, a cat, a goat, a man, a unit, a eulogy. Where is n used after the a?
Before words commencing with a tonic sound; as, an enemy, an hour.
CHAPTER III.
NOUNS.
What is the next part of speech in order?
The Noun.
What are the names of all persons and things?
Nouns.
What is North Carolina?
A Noun.
How do you define a Noun?
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, John, Raleigh, Book.
How many classes of nouns are there?
Two; Common and Proper.
What is a common noun?
A common noun is a common name; as, town, city, tree, cow.
Define a Proper noun.
A Proper noun is a proper or particular name; as, Charles Fisher, Newbern, Yadkin.
How do proper nouns always commence?
With a capital letter.
Is Tennessee a common or proper noun?
A Proper noun, because it is a particular name. What kind of a noun is State?
A common noun, because it is a name given to all States.
Page 13
EXERCISE.
Fill up the following sentences by inserting in place of the dash
(--) a common or a proper noun, as may be needed.
EXAMPLE.--is planted in April.
FILLED. Cotton is planted in April.
1.--is a Confederate State.
2. Gen.--reduced Fort Sumter.
3. South Carolina is the greatest--country in the Confederate States.
4. Louisiana raises more--than any other State in the Confederacy.
5. The mountains of North Carolina are a great--of resort for--and pleasure.
6. The Sea--are pleasant and healthy.
7. Nearly all the--of America is raised in--and--.
CHAPTER IV.
PRONOUNS.
What is the word Pronoun composed of?
Pro, which means for, and noun, a name.
In the sentence, "William learns his lesson," what does his stand for?
The Name William.
Could we dispense with the word his?
Yes; by saying William learns William's lesson.
Then why do we use the word his?
Because it is shorter than the noun William, and answers the same purpose.
What do we call all words standing for nouns?
Pronouns.
Define a Pronoun.
Pronouns are used instead of nouns.
Are they always used instead of nouns?
No; sometimes they only relate to nouns, and sometimes merely point them out.
Page 14
Mention the Pronouns that stand for persons and things.
I, thou, he, she, it.
What are these called?
Personal Pronouns.
Mention those relating to nouns.
Who, which, that, and what.
Give an example.
He is the man, who captured the flag.
Mention the Pronouns that simply point out nouns.
This, that, any, one, all, such, some, both, another, none, each, every, either, neither.
Give an example.
That man is sober; both boys were to blame.
What are these called?
Adjective pronouns.
You should take sufficient notice of these pronouns to know them wherever you see them, since they are used very often in all books.
EXERCISE.
In following sentences insert pronouns to fill the dashes.
EXAMPLE. The hail has broken--corn.
FILLED. The hail has broken my corn.
1. Abraham. Lincoln led--people into war.
2. I will obey--parents.
3. The South is--native land.
4. Give me--pencil. I will return--.
5. People love the land of--birth.
6. Are--going to learn--lesson?
7. I gave the beggar--hat, and--thanked me very politely.
8. Jefferson Davis defended--country bravely, and deserves great applause for--patriotism.
9. Napoleon desired to render--name immortal by conquering Empires and extending--rule over all the world.
10. The climate of--country is soft and balmy; no-- land is more highly favored.
11. Those people--live in North Carolina hhealthy alech and delightful climate.
12. Washington, in--youth, and throughout--whole life, adhered strictly to the truth, and thus set an example, which --ought to follow.
13. The works of creation invite--to contemplate the greatness and goodness of--Creator.
Page 15
14. If--think--never do wrong--deceive-- for almost every moment--are guilty of sin.
15. General Andrew Jackson, at the battle of New Orleans, showed --valor by bravely commanding--own men, and entirely routing--of the enemy, and killing many of--on the field.
CHAPTER V.
ADJECTIVES.
What is the next part of speech called?
The ADJECTIVE.
In the sentence, "Apples are good fruit," which word is a noun?
Fruit is a noun, because it is a name.
Which word describes fruit?
Good.
What part of speech is good?
An ADJECTIVE.
An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun or pronoun.
Give one or two examples.
A bad boy. A large tree. A great ox. Samuel is disobedient.
In the examples given, which words are adjectives?
Bad, large, great, and disobedient.
What other kind of adjectives do we have?
NUMERAL.
Give a few examples.
Three, seven, eight, third, seventh, eighth.
What do these words express?
NUMBER. All numeral adjectives express number.
EXERCISE.
Complete the following sentences by inserting an adjective in place of each dash. Do not use the same adjective more than once.
EXAMPLE. A--day. Putting in an adjective, a rainy day; a pleasant day; an unfortunate day.
1. In New England it is very--during winter; and-- deaths occur from the rigors of the climate.
Page 16
2. Winter in the West Indies is--and the climate is delightful for--persons.
3. Columbus was the-- man that crossed the--Ocean. He--landed on one of the West Indie islands, and performed worship to the--Creator.
4. The whale is a--animal; he often does--damage with a--stroke of his tail.
5. We live in a--mansion, which has--chimneys.
6. In the woods we may--flowers; the--rose, the--dandelion, and the--lilly.
7. Be a--boy while at school, and you may make a-- man when you are old.
8. John has studied the--lesson and deserves a--grade.
9. Remember to be--to your teachers and--to your parents.
10. William has a--book, a--slate, and a--uniform.
CHAPTER VI.
VERBS.
What is the fifth part of speech called?
The Verb.
In the sentence "Sarah reads Latin," which word tells what Sarah does?
Reads.
In the sentence, "Mary sleeps," which word tells us the state Mary is in?
Sleeps.
What do we call reads and sleeps?
Verbs.
What is a verb?
A verb is word that expresses action, or a state of being.
In the sentence "William is industrious," what part of speech is William, and why? What is is, and why? What is good, and why?
EXERCISE.
Where a dash occurs insert a verb that will complete the sense.
EXAMPLE. The trees--large roots, so as to--the winter winds.
Page 17
COMPLETED. The trees have large roots so as to resist the winter winds.
1. In autumn the farmer--his harvest, and--it away in barns. The leaves--from the trees, and the wind-- through the branches.
2. Whatever you--to do,--it quickly; never-- till to-morrow what--to-day.
3. Let us--early, and--much work.
4. Cows--milk, which we--into butter and cheese.
5. Richard--to the concert, and--Dixie's Land sung.
6. A farmer--a snake, almost frozen to death, under a hedge; moved with compassion, he--it to his house, and--it near the fire. No sooner did the heat--to revive it, than the snake--upon his wife,--one of his children, and-- the whole family into terror and confusion. "Ungrateful wretch!" --the farmer; "I find it--useless to--favors on the undeserving." With these words he--a hatchet, and-- the snake into pieces.
7. Indian tribes--in the forest. They sometimes--the white man as he--on his journey, and--goods from him.
8. The horse--a noble animal. He can--, or--, and at the same time--a man on his back, or--a wagon behind him.
CHAPTER VII.
ADVERBS.
What is the sixth part of speech called?
The Adverb.
What is the meaning of the word Adverb?
Joined to a verb.
Why are adverbs joined to verbs?
To modify them.
In the sentence "Beauregard fought bravely," what word tells how he fought?
Bravely.
Then bravely is joined to, or modifies what word?
The verb fought.
What part of speech then, is bravely?
An Adverb.
Page 18
Are adverbs ever joined to any other words besides verbs?
Yes; adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs.
In the sentence, "Beauregard fought very bravely," what word tells how bravely Beauregard fought?
Very.
Then very is joined to bravely; what part of speech is bravely?
An Adverb.
Then since very is joined to the adverb bravely, what part of speech is it?
An Adverb.
In the sentence, "John is very diligent," to what is very joined?
To the adjective diligent.
What part of speech is it, then?
An adverb.
What is an adverb?
An Adverb is a word used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what words they modify.
1. James talks sensibly.
2. He studies very hard, and stands well in his class.
3. I like him very much.
Mention some of the principal classes of adverbs.
1. Adverbs of manner, which end for the most part in ly; as swiftly, boldly, quickly, slowly, handsomely, & c.
2. Adverbs of time; as, now, then, yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, immediately, often, always, never, ever, again, soon, seldom, hitherto, & c.
3. Adverbs of place; as, here, there, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, where, and its compounds nowhere, elsewhere, anywhere & c.
4. Adverbs of quality; as, much, little, enough, & c.
5. Adverbs of degree; as, very, almost, nearly, & c.
What other words express manner and are liable to be confounded with adverbs of manner?
Adjectives.
What is the difference between them?
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun; an adverb, to describe or modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Page 19
How can you tell them apart?
When a word expressing manner is joined to a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective; when it is joined to a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb.
EXERCISE.
Make a list, in order, of the adjectives that occur in the following sentences.
Make a separate list of the adverbs, in order.
1. The early hours of sleep are the most sweet and refreshing.
2. The Bedouin Arabs are, for the most part, small, meagre, and tawny.
3. Quicksilver is a valuable metal; it has hitherto been imported chiefly from Spain, Germany, and Peru.
4. I will assist you most cheerfully if you will be careful and attentive.
5. Those who are virtuous may not always be happy here, but they will certainly receive their reward hereafter.
6. Large armies generally march slowly.
7. He who forms conclusions too quickly, often forms them incorrectly.
8. If you are attentive you will learn grammar very fast.
9. The Portugese were once the most enterprising navigators of Europe; they founded colonies in many parts of the world, before totally unknown.
10. I have heard better singing to-day than I ever heard before.
11. He who tries hard, seldom fails to succeed.
CHAPTER VIII.
EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.
Where a dash occurs insert an adverb that will complete the sense.
EXAMPLE. I labored--.
COMPLETED. I labored faithfully.
1. Josephine sings--, and dances--.
2. The house is--tall, and is--built.
3. We are--going to the grave.
4. I saw him--; he was running--down the hill side.
5. Listen--, and you will--be able to understand the subject.
6. General Stuart--started in pursuit; he--overtook the enemy,--led on the attack in person, and gained a complete victory.
Page 20
7. Time past--returns; improve the moments, therefore, as --as you can.
8. The horse trotted--. John ate--.
9. The lion roars--. The kitten plays--.
10. The rain began to fall--, and they were--wet.
11. The poor boy was--hurt.
12. This room will hold twenty persons very--.
13. He--gave the poor man his purse.
14. When are you going?--.
15. Do you see him? Yes he is--.
CHAPTER IX.
CONJUNCTIONS.
What is the seventh part of speech called?
The Conjunction.
When I say "Mary learns her lesson," what is the expression called?
A sentence.
What is a sentence?
Such an assemblage of words as makes complete senes.
Would "Kate to the fair," be a sentence?
No; because it would not make complete sense.
Make a complete sentence of it.
"Kate has gone to the fair."
In the sentence "James got up early and went to market," how many parts are there, and what are they?
Two; "James got up early" is one, "went to market" is the other.
What are such parts of a sentence called?
Clauses.
What word connects the two clauses in the above sentence?
And.
What does the word conjunction mean?
A connecting together.
What, then, may and, and all such words as connect clauses, be called?
Conjunctions.
Page 21
Do conjunctions ever connect any thing else besides clauses?
Yes; conjunctions connect words also.
Give me a sentence in which there is a conjunction connecting words.
"Mary turned and wept;" here the conjunction and connects the verbs turned and wept.
Give me another.
"George and Henry have gone to Raleigh;" here the conjunction and connects the nouns George and Henry.
Now tell me, what is a conjunction?
A conjunction is a word used to connect other words and clauses.
Mention some of the principal conjunctions.
And, because, if, that, or, nor, either, neither, but, lest, notwithstanding, therefore, though, unless, than, as.
What is a sentence?
What is a clause?
What is a conjunction?
EXERCISE.
Where a dash occurs, insert a conjunction that will complete the sense.
EXAMPLE. He went to the ball,--he was ordered to remain.
COMPLETED. He went to the ball, although he was ordered to remain.
1. Either you must go,--I. John--Mary are here.
2. Neither the wagon,--the carriage has arrived.
3. We will not go fishing,--it rains.
4. Hannibal took an oath--he would conquer the Romans.
5. He did not get a premium,--he did not deserve it.
6. Mary has excellent parents,--she is a bad girl.
7. Do not buy the book--you can get it for a shilling.
8. I like to see a hard shower,--I never walk out in one.
Page 22
9. My father--mother are going to Raleigh to-morrow-- it be clear.
10. Let those who stand, beware--they fall.
11. The happy often forget--others are miserable.
12. General Lee defeated the Yankees,--his army was much smaller--theirs.
13. None will deny--the hawk flies more swiftly--the pigeon.
14.--you do your duty you will not be blamed.
15. I saw my cousin--I was turning the corner.
CHAPTER X.
PREPOSITIONS.
What is the eighth part of speech called?
The PREPOSITION.
In the sentence, "William walked to Charleston," what word shows the relation between William's walking and Charleston?
To.
How is this word to placed?
Before the noun Charleston.
What does the word preposition mean?
A placing before.
What then may we call to, and all similar words?
Prepositions.
What is a Preposition?
A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun, to show the relation between it, and some other word or words in the sentence.
Page 23
Mention the principal prepositions.*
* The pupil ought to commit this list to memory.
- among
- around
- about
- above
- across
- according to
- after
- against
- amidst
- at
- before
- behind
- below
- beneath
- beside
- between
- beyond
- by
- concerning
- down
- during
- except
- for
- from
- in
- into
- instead of
- near
- of
- on
- out of,
- over
- respecting
- through
- throughout
- to
- towards
- up
- upon
- under
- unto
- with
- within
- without
EXERCISE.
Wherever a dash occurs, insert a preposition that will complete the sense.
EXAMPLE. Nothing can be accomplished--an effort.
COMPLETED. Nothing can be accomplished without an effort.
1. In Greenland, the people live-- wretched huts.
2. Steamboats run--Vicksburg--Memphis.
3. --the summer, the cattle love to lie--shady trees.
4. The camel has a hump--his back.
5. --patience and perseverance you may attain the highest station --society.
6. He gave the book--me, and I placed it--the table.
7. You must perform examples--the rule.
8. It is dark--sunset.
9. She lives--Piedmont, twenty-five miles--Salem.
10. A large rock hangs--the path.
11. The sailor likes to get--port.
12. Always keep virtue and duty--your eyes.
13. I live--my father.
14. A farmer was bitten--a snake, while he was standing -- the weeds.
15. The ferry-boat will take us--the river.
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CHAPTER XI.
INTERJECTIONS.
What is the ninth and last part of speech?
The INTERJECTION.
In the sentence "Alas! I am undone!" what word is thrown in to express the sorrow of the speaker?
Alas!
What does the word interjection mean?
A throwing in.
What, then, may alas! and similar words be called?
Interjections.
What is an Interjection?
An Interjection is a word used to express some sudden feeling of the speaker.
What are the principal feelings which are expressed by interjections?
Sorrow, triumph, disgust, wonder; there are also interjections of calling, of attention, of saluting, of taking leave.
Mention the principal interjections of sorrow.
Oh! ah! alas! alack!
Mention those expressing triumph.
Hurrah! huzza! bravo! aha!
Mention those expressing disgust.
Indeed! fudge! pshaw! tush! away! begone!
Mention those expressing wonder.
Indeed! strange! what!
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Mention those of calling.
Hallo! ho!
Mention those of attention.
Behold! lo! hark! listen! see! hush! hist!
Mention those of saluting.
O! (O is always used with a pronoun, or the name of an object addressed; as, O thou! O James!) welcome! hail!
Mention those of taking leave.
Adieu! farewell! good b'ye!
What mark is that (!) which you see placed after each of the above interjections?
An Exclamation Point.
When you write an interjection, what must you place after it?
An exclamation point.
In the exercise that follows, how will you know which of the above interjections to insert in place of the dash?
I will read the whole sentence, and put in an interjection that is appropriate; thus, if the sentence express sorrow, I will insert an interjection of sorrow; if wonder, I will insert one of wonder, & c.
EXERCISE.
Where a dash occurs, insert a suitable interjection.
EXAMPLE. --! the victory is ours!
COMPLETED. Hurrah! the victory is ours!
1. --! I am surprised at this.
2. My house is on fire; --! I am undone.
3. --! what strange figure is this that is approaching?
4. --! my friend; I am glad to see you.
5. --! the cannon are booming; the battle has begun.
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6. --!dishonest wretch; I despise thee!
7. --! our friend has conquered.
8. --! stranger; will you tell a traveller where he is?
9. --! no one can tell how much the poor suffer.
10.--! is it thus you behave?
11. I hope you may have a pleasant journey.--!
12. --! what noise was that?
13. --! poor fellow! I am sorry for him.
14. --! John, where are you going?
15. Who is that?--! he is descending the hill.
16. --! is it really so! impossible!
17. --! thou blessed sun, that spreadest gladness over the earth.
18. --! I am at the head of my class.
CHAPTER XII.
A REVIEW.
[The pupil has answered all the questions given below, as they occurred the preceding lessons; but as he may have forgotten some of them, he must look back for the answers, and learn them carefully.]
What is a letter?
What is a vowel? Name the vowels.
What is a consonant? Name the consonants.
What two letters are sometimes vowels, and at other times consonants?
When are they vowels, and when consonants?
What is a syllable?
What is a word?
How many parts of speech are there? Mention them.
What is an article? Mention the articles.
What is a noun? Give an example.
How many kinds of nouns are there? What is a proper noun? What is a common noun?
What is a pronoun? Mention the principal pronouns.
What is an adjective? Give an example.
What is a verb? Give an example.
What is an adverb? Give an example. Mention the different kinds of adverbs, and give an example of each.
What is a sentence?
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What are distinct members or parts of sentences called?
What is a conjunction? Mention some of the principal conjunctions.
What is a preposition? Mention some of the principal propositions.
What is an interjection? What are the principal classes of interjections?
Mention one of each class.
CHAPTER XIII.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE.
In this lesson and the next, the pupil, wherever a blank occurs, must insert whatever part of speech is required to complete the sense. Following the spelling and punctuation of the book.
MARTINS.
Martins [gap] a kind of swallows. They feed [gap] flies, [gap] and other insects, and skim swiftly through [gap] air, in pursuit of their prey. In the morning [gap] are up by day-break, and twitter about your window, while [gap] are asleep [gap] bed. They a e [gap] harmless, and, as people do not molest them, they [gap] build their [gap] in towns [gap] villages. They are small birds, but [gap] a great deal. I will [gap] a couple of stories, illustrating their sagacity.
A pair of martins, who [gap] their nest in a [gap] porch, had some young ones; and [gap] happened that one of them, in [gap] to climb [gap] the side, fell out, and striking [gap] the stones, was [gap] killed. The old [gap] , seeing this accident, went and [gap] strong pieces of straw, and fastened them [gap] mud all around the [gap] , in order to keep the [gap] from meeting a similar [gap] .
Here is another [gap] about them. While a martin was absent from his nest one day, a [gap] cock-sparrow took possession [gap] it; when the owner [gap] and [gap] to enter, he put out [gap] bill, and commenced pecking at him. The martin, not [gap] pleased with this invasion of his [gap] , flew away, and [gap] a number of his companions. They all came [gap] the nest, with bits of clay in their [gap] , with which [gap] plastered up the [gap] to the nest; so [gap] the sparrow, unable to [gap] food and air, [gap] died.
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CHAPTER XIV.
EXERCISE.
THE DUKE AND THE GALLEY-SLAVES.
The King of Spain once gave [gap] to [gap] Duke of Ossuna to release such of the galley-slaves as [gap] might think proper. The Duke, as he [gap] among the slaves who were at the oars, asked them in succession of what crime they had [gap] guilty. They all protested innocence, and [gap] him that they had been unjustly [gap] . One attributed his condemnation to the [gap] of an enemy, another to the [gap] of his judge. At last, however, he [gap] one who admitted that, to save his [gap] from starving, he had robbed a man of [gap] , on [gap] highway. The Duke, [gap] he heard this, gave him a stroke [gap] the back [gap] his hand, and said, " Get you gone, you rogue, from the [gap] of honest men." So [gap] who confessed [gap] fault was released, while the [gap] , for their want of [gap] were compelled to [gap] at their labors.
Thus we see [gap] we are not likely to lose any thing by a [gap] admission of [gap] faults.
CHAPTER XV.
THE SUBJECT.
When I say, "Charles walks," who is it that I speak about?
Charles.
In the sentence, "The oak has been cut down," what is it that I speak about?
The oak.
What do we call Charles, oak, and all words respecting which an action or state is affirmed?
SUBJECTS.
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What is the subject of a verb?
The subject of a verb is that respecting which the action or state expressed by the verb is affirmed.
How may you always find the subject of a verb?
Put the word who or what before the verb, and the answer to the question will be the subject.
Give me an example. In the sentence, "John went to market," what is the subject?
Put who before the verb, and the answer to the question will be the subject; thus, "Who went to market?" Answer, John.
John, therefore, is the subject.
In the sentence, "Virtue is a source of happiness," find the subject in the ame manner as above.
Put what before the verb; "What is a source of happiness?'
Answer, Virtue. Virtue is the subject.
In the same manner select the subjects in the following sentences:
Bees make honey. Virginia is a large state.
Quarrels are unpleasant. Charles was late at school.
The flute makes fine music. We are tired of walking.
The machine was invented in England. You are wrong.
Gratitude is a noble feeling. Science enlarges the mind.
They are very sick. We were disappointed.
In last two sentences, what are the subjects?
They and we.
What part of speech are they and we?
Pronouns.
May pronouns, then, be subjects of a verb?
They may.
In the sentence, "To steal is base," find the subject as above.
Put what before the verb; "What is base! Answer, to steal.
To steal is the subject.
What part of speech is steal?
A verb, because it expresses action.
When a verb has to before it, we say it is in the infinitive mood; may a verb in the infinitive mood, then, be the subject of another verb?
It may.
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What mood is a verb in, when it has to before it?
A verb is in the infinitive mood when it has to before it.
How may we know when a verb is in the infinitive mood?
By seeing whether it has to before it.
Is to play in the infinitive mood? to jump? to walk? Mention six more verbs in the infinitive mood.
May a verb in the infinitive mood be the subject of another verb?
It may.
Give me several examples, and mention the subject.
To lie is dishonorable: here, to lie is the subject. To travel is pleasant: to travel is the subject.
Make three short sentences of your own, like the above, in which a verb in the infinitive mood will be the subject of another verb, and mention the subject in each sentence.
In the sentence, "Whether we shall go to Columbia is uncertain," find the subject in the manner described above.
Put what before the verb: "What is uncertain? Answer, whether we shall go to Columbia. These words, therefore, whether we shall go to Columbia, are the subject.
These words form part of a sentence; may, then, part of a sentence be the subject of a verb?
It may.
Find, as above, the subjects in the following sentences:
1. To fall from the top of a church-steeple, is certain death.
2. For a weak nation to provoke a strong one, is bad policy.
3. That even the best men commit sin, is proved by daily experience.
Now, let us see, what have we found that a verb may have for its subject?
A verb may have for its subject,
I. A noun; as, John walks;
II. A pronoun; as, they are gone;
III. A verb in the infinitive mood; as, to dig is hard work;
IV. Part of a sentence; as, doing one's duty secures happiness.
Select the subject in each of the sentences just given as examples.
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EXERCISE.
Select and write out the subject in each of the following sentences;
if you are in any doubt, put who or what before the verb, as directed
above.
EXAMPLE. Working in quicksilver mines is very injurious to the health.
Subject. Working in quicksilver mines.
1. We should improve our time.
2. Digging potatoes is hard work.
3. To reveal a friend's secrets is dishonorable.
4. Cicero was a celebrated orator.
5. Wealth does not always procure esteem.
6. Temperance and exercise preserve health.
7. Time and tide wait for no man.
8. For an ignorant person to profess to teach philosophy, only exposes him to ridicule.
9. Whether it will rain is uncertain.
10. John and I will start in the morning
11. Where are the women going?
12. To be wise in his own eyes, is the mark of a fool.
CHAPTER XVI.
EXERCISE.
Where a blank occurs, insert a subject, either a noun, a pronoun, or a verb in the infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, as may be required to complete the sense.
EXAMPLE. [gap] and [gap] lead to wealth.
Completed. Industry and frugality lead to wealth.
1. [gap] and [gap] gnaw holes in the floor.
2. [gap] , [gap] , and [gap] , are used for drawing loads.
3. [gap] *is dishonorable.
4. [gap] am going to school.
5. [gap] is a useful study.
* Here the pupil must insert a verb in the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence.
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6. Has the [gap] arrived?
7. [gap] attends carefully to his lessons.
8. Have [gap] written your exercise?
9. [gap] and [gap] are made from milk.
10. [gap] *is a proof of dishonesty.
11. [gap] *is the practice of a bad boy.
12. [gap] *is unpleasant work.
13. [gap] *is the business of the baker.
14. [gap] marched by with a fine band of music.
* Here the pupil must insert a verb in the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE OBJECT.--TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
In the sentence, "Charles killed a fly," what word expresses the object that receives the action expressed by the verb?
The word fly.
What do we call fly, in this sentence?
Fly is the OBJ ECT of the verb killed.
In the sentence, "Children love milk," what is the object of the verb love?
Milk.
What is the object of a verb?
The object of a verb is that which receives the action expressed by the verb.
What is the object in each of the following sentences?
- Bees make honey.
- Mary kindled the fire.
- My mother loves me.
- Birds build nests.
- I have broken my knife.
- John's father scolded him.
In the last two sentences what are the objects?
Me and him.
What part of speech are me and him?
Pronouns.
May a pronoun, then, be the object of a verb?
It may.
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In the sentence, "John sleeps," it there any object?
There is not.
Does the verb sleep admit an object after it?
It does not.
Into how many classes, then, may verbs be divided?
Into two classes;
I. TRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that express an act that may be done to an object.
II. INTRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that do not express an act that may be doue to an object.
Are verbs that express simply a state of being, transitive or intransitive?
Verbs that express a state of being are intransitive.
Why?
Because they do not express any action at all.
Is strike transitive or intransitive and why?
Strike is a transitive verb, because it admits an object after it. Thus we may say, "I strike a man;" in this sentence, man would be the object, and hence we find that strike is transitive.
Is live a transitive or intransitive verb?
Live is an intransitive verb, because it expresses simply a state of being, and does not admit an object after it.
Is sleep transitive or intransitive? jump? hurt? eat? dream? love? see? be? walk? run?
May any other put of speech besides a verb, have an object?
Yes; a preposition may have an object.
In the sentence, "John is lying on the grass," what is the object of the preposition on?
Grass.
Make three short sentences similar to the one last given, in which there will be a preposition and its object.
How may you always find the object of a verb, or preposition?
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By putting what or whom after it; the answer to the question will be the object.
Give me an example. Tell me the object of the verb and preposition in this sentence, "The butcher killed a pig with a knife."
Put what after the verb--"The butcher killed what?" Answer, a pig; pig is the object of the verb killed. Put what after the preposition--"With what?" Answer, a knife; knife is the object of the preposition with.
EXERCISE.
Complete the following sentences by inserting an object where a blank occurs; either a noun or pronoun, as the sense may require.
1. In Egypt the Nile overflows the [gap] , and renders the [gap] fertile.
2. Boys can buy [gap] with their money.
3. I have found in the street a [gap] and a [gap] .
4. A man by honesty and [gap] will always gain the [gap] of his companions.
5. Henry's father bought him a [gap] for a Christmas [gap] .
6. When danger is nigh, a hen gathers her [gap] under her [gap] .
7. The fisherman is preparing to go to [gap] in a [gap] .
8. In building houses, they use [gap] , [gap] , and [gap] .
9. The mice have gnawed [gap] in this old [gap] .
10. The American Indians are very skilful with the bow and arrow; they can hit a very small [gap] at a great [gap] . With these weapons they often kill [gap] , [gap] , and other wild [gap] .
11. With your spare [gap] purchase books; read [gap] , profit by [gap] , and take good care of [gap] .
12. My brother loves me, and I love [gap] .
13. After we die, the grave will contain [gap] ; but our friends will remember [gap] , and shed [gap] on account of our departure.
14. Birds gather [gap] for their young, and teach [gap] how to fly.
15. The milk of the cow furnishes us [gap] and [gap] .
16. In church we see many [gap] , but should listen to the [gap] .
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CHAPTER XVIII.
PERSONAL, RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
What is a pronoun? (See Lesson IV., if you do not remember.)
How many different classes of pronouns are there, and what are their names?
There are four classes of pronouns--Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective.
In the sentence,"I am tired," for what does the pronoun I stand? For the name of the person speaking.
What kind of a pronoun is I?
A personal pronoun.
What is a personal pronoun?
A personal pronoun is a word, which, being used in a sentence without the noun for which it stands, merely represents it, without introducing any additional idea respecting it.
Mention the personal pronouns.
The personal pronouns are as follows: I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine, thee, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them.
In the sentence, "The Romans, who were victorious, lost only fifty men,' to what word does the pronoun who relate; or, in other words, who are said to have been victorious?
Romans.
Then, since the pronoun who relates to Romans, what kind of a pronoun shall we call it?
A relative pronoun.
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What is a relative pronoun?
A relative pronoun is a word that relates to a noun or pronoun before it.
What is this noun or pronoun going before, to which the relative relates called?
The antecedent.
In the sentence, "The boy who is idle will be unhappy,' what is the relative, and what its antecedent?
Who is the relative, and boy is its antecedent.
Mention the relative pronouns.
The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, that.
Is who always a relative pronoun?
No; sometimes it does not relate to an antecedent, but is used to ask a question, as, "Who is there?"
What kind of a pronoun is it then called?
An interrogative pronoun.
What is an interrogative pronoun?
An interrogative pronoun is one that is used to ask a question.
Mention the interrogative pronouns?
The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.
What mark always follows a sentence that contains an interrogative pronoun?
The Interrogation Point (?) which ought to be placed after every question.
How, then, can you tell when who is relative pronoun, and when an interrogative?
By looking at the end of the sentence; if the interrogation point is there, it is for the most part an interrogative pronoun if not, it is a relative.
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What are adjective pronouns?
Adjective Pronouns are words that are sometimes used instead of nouns, but are more frequently followed by their nouns, which they limit, or, qualify, after the manner of adjectives.
Give me one or two sentences containing adjective pronouns.
"Hand me that book." "I have some apples." "Have you any paper?" That, some, and any are adjective pronouns.
Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns?
This, that, these, those, some, no, none, any, all, each, every, either, neither.
How can you tell adjective pronouns?
By their being followed by a noun; as, these pens, some money, each breath, either side.
EXERCISE.
Make lists of the personal, relative, interrogative, and adjective pronouns, in order, as they occur in the following sentences. The pupil will do well to make his lists according to the following.
EXAMPLE. Jane, I told you to hand me that book which is lying on the table, but you have not done it. What is the reason?
- I,
- you,
- me,
- you,
- it.
Lists.
Personal.
- Which.
Relative.
- What.
Interrogative.
- That.
Adjective
1. You say that* I am charged with a great crime. Who are my accusers? Let them stand forth, that I may see the authors of this base slander.
2. If every man would do his duty, none would have cause for complaint.
3. Can we stand patiently by, and see our property torn from us? No; each generous emotion of our hearts forbids it. Let this tyrant tremble, and all his satelites beware!
4. The men whom I saw had each a musket.
5. Wherever she went, every one seemed disposed to do her honor.
6. Look on this picture and on that.
NOTE. The word THAT, is sometimes a conjunction, sometimes a relative, and at other times an adjective pronoun; the pupil must decide which it is by the relation that it bears to other words in the sentence. In this sentence, THAT is not a relative, for it does not relate to any antecedent; it is not an adjective pronoun, for it is not joined to, or used for, any noun, but it is a conjunction, for it connects clauses.
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CHAPTER XIX.
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSE.
What is a Relative Pronoun?
A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to a noun or pronoun going before, called the antecedent.
What is the antecedent?
The antecedent is a noun or pronoun before the relative to which it relates.
In the sentence, "He that does right will be rewarded," what is the relative and what the antecedent?
That is the relative, and he is the antecedent.
What service does the relative perform in a sentence?
The relative is used to introduce a clause for the purpose of limiting, explaining, or adding something further to what is being said.
What is a clause thus introduced by a relative, called?
A RELATIVE CLAUSE.
What is the relative clause in the sentence, "He that does right will be rewarded?"
That does right is the relative clause, because it is introduced by the relative that.
Select the relative, the antecedent, and the relative clause, in the following sentences.
1. The friends that we gain in childhood, often forget us in old age.
2. The wind, which had been shifting all day from point to point, now began to blow steadily from the south.
3. Those who are the most industrious are the most happy.
4. James, whose work was the best, received the premium.
5. I have seen the man that lives in the cave.
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The sentences given in this exercise contain a relative and its
antecedent; the pupil must complete them by inserting the relative
clause, where the blank occurs. Before attempting to insert the
clause, read the whole sentence, and then think of something that
will be appropriate. EXAMPLE. The study that [gap] is History. Completed. The study that I like best is History. Or, The study that I dislike most is History. Or, The study that I find most difficult is History. Each sentence may be completed in a variety of ways.EXERCISE.
1. I have broken my watch, which [gap] .
2. The tree that [gap] , was blown down last night.
3. My father, who [gap] , has got well.
4. Those who [gap] will be happy in this world, and still happier in the next.
5. Horses are very useful to those who [gap] .
6. In every school there are boys who [gap] .
7. Thomas found the knife which [gap] .
8. There is a boy whose [gap] .
9. Mary is the most dilligent girl that [gap] .
10. The good boy will apply himself vigorously to the lesson which [gap] .
11. The carriage which [gap] has been mended.
12. Columbus was the first man that [gap] .
13. The butterflies which [gap] ,will all perish in winter.
14. The dog that [gap] has run away.
CHAPTER XX.
PARTICIPLES.--PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES.
In the sentence, "I saw John feeding his chickens," which word implies action, and at the same time qualifies John?
Feeding.
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Which part of speech implies action, and which qualifies nouns?
The verb implies action, and the adjective qualifies nouns.
The word feeding, then, partakes of the nature of what two parts of speech?
The verb and the adjective.
What name is given to feeding and similar words?
PARTICIPLES.
What is a participle?
A participle is a word that describes a noun or pronoun, by assigning to it a certain action or state.
Does the participle form a distinct part of speech?
No; participles are now classed as parts of verbs.
How many participles has every transitive verb?
Five.
Mention the five participles of the verb love.
Loving, loved, having loved, being loved, having been loved.
How many participles has every intransitive verb?
Two.
Mention the two participles of the intransitive verb walk.
Walking, having walked.
Give me two or three sentences containing participles, and select the participle in each.
James, while walking by the shore, saw large bass attacked by a shark.
Having been deceived once, I never trusted him again.
He died, loved and respected by all that knew him.
In the last sentence, what clause is introduced by the participles, loved and respected?
"Loved and respected by all that knew him."
What is a clause introduced by, or containing a participle, called?
A PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE.
Select the participial clause in each of the three sentences given above.
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EXERCISE.
Complete the following sentences by inserting a participle in place of the blank.
EXAMPLE. The day [gap] fair, we started on our journey.
Completed. The day being fair, we started on our journey.
1. Moses, [gap] his lessons, recited them well.
2. We saw a boy [gap] in the river.
3. Dinner [gap] , the party sat down.
4. The carriage [gap] , Robert has taken it to the blacksmith's, to get it [gap] .
5. My dog [gap] sick, I could not go a hunting.
6. I have just seen a man killed by [gap] from the top of a house.
7. My friend, while [gap] out on horseback, was thrown and seriously injured.
8. I saw the Confederate flag [gap] from the City Hall.
9. You may often see bad boys [gap] in the street.
10. Our house [gap] , we are about to move into it.
11. The merchant spends his time in [gap] and [gap] goods.
12. Gas is useful for [gap] streets and houses.
13. Oxen are used for [gap] wagons.
14. Ships, while [gap] on the ocean, often encounter violent storms.
15. The weather [gap] we must have a fire [gap] .
16. From this eminence [gap] my eyes upon the vast plain that lay before me, I saw a herd of buffaloes [gap] amid the long prairie-grass, and a group of wild horses [gap] away in the far distance.
17. He was a bad man, and died, [gap] and [gap] by all that knew him.
CHAPTER XXI.
A REVIEW.
[For the answers to the following questions, see Chapters XV., XVII., XVIII., XIX., and XX.]
What is the subject of a verb?
How may you find the subject of a verb?
What may a verb have for its subject?
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What is the object of a verb?
What other parts of speech, besides transitive verbs, may have an object?
How may you find the object of a verb or proposition?
What is a pronoun?
Name the classes of pronouns.
What is a personal pronoun? Mention the personal pronouns.
What is a relative pronoun? Mention the relative pronouns.
What is an interrogative pronoun? Mention the interrogative pronouns.
What is an adjective pronoun? Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns.
What is a relative clause?
What is the antecedent of a relative pronoun?
What is a participle?
How many participles has a transitive verb? an intransitive verb?
Mention the participles of the verb ask. Mention those of the verb dream.
What is a participial clause?
EXERCISE.
Where a dash occurs, put its one or more words, as may be required to complete the sense.
THE TAME BEAR.
Hans Christian Anderson, the German writer, tells us the following--story of a tame bear, which broke loose while the man --exhibiting him was--dinner. He made his way to --public house,--, and went straight--where there was three children, the eldest--whom was no more than six or eight--old. "The door sprang open, and in walked--. The children were much frightened--, and crept--corners. The bear followed--, and rubbed them with--nose, but he did not--. When the children--, they thought it was a big dog, and they patted,--, and--. The eldest boy now--his drum, and began to--loud noise. No sooner did the bear--, than he raised himself on--and began to dance. This was charming.
The boys had been playing at soldiers before--, and now each -- his gun and--. They gave the bear a gun, too, and he-- like a regular militia-man. Then they marched; what a fine comrade--!
Presently, however, the door--again. It was the children's
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mother. You should have seen her; and her face was white as-- and she trembled with fear when saw the--. Then the smallest -- ran up to her, and shouted, 'Mamma, mamma, we have had such--, playing soldier!'"
CHAPTER XXII.
SENTENCES, PHRASES, CLAUSES, APPOSITION.
What is a sentence?
A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense.
How many kinds of sentences are there, and what are they?
Four kinds; declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.
What is a declarative sentence?
A declarative sentence is one in which something is declared; as, "It rains."
What is an imperative sentence?
An imperative sentence is one in which permission is given, or a command, an exhortation, or an entreaty uttered; as, "Let it rain."
What is an interrogative sentence?
An interrogative sentence is one in which a question is asked; as, "Does it rain?"
What is an exclamatory sentence?
An exclamatory sentence is one that contains an exclamation; as, "How it rains!"
Make two declarative sentences; two imperative; two interrogative; two exclamatory.
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What is a phrase?
A phrase is a combination of words which separately have no connection, either in construction, or sense, with other words in the sentence, but which, when taken together, convey a single idea, and may be construed as a single word. Thus; "James, in short, has become a hermit," -- in this sentence, in short is a phrase.
What is a clause?
A clause is a combination of words which separately may or may not be connected in construction with other words in the sentence: if so connected, they assert some additional circumstance respecting the leading proposition; as, "James, who had been on the watch, espied a sail:" if not so connected, they assert an entirely independent proposition; as, Stephen sailed for Florida, but he was wrecked on the voyage. In these sentences the words in italics are clauses.
What is a relative clause?
A clause containing a relative pronoun; as, "James, for whom I felt so much anxiety, has arrived."
What is a participial clause?
A clause containing a participle; as "The rest of the company having arrived, went to dinner."
What is an adverbial clause?
A clause that performs the office of an adverb, and generally expresses time, place, or manner; as, "A thousand years hence, all these things will have passed away."
What a vocative clause?
A clause containing the name of an object addressed,
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with its adjuncts; as, "My dear friend, I hope to meet you soon."
When is one noun said to be in apposition with another? When it refers to the same object, and is in the same construction; as, "Paul, the Apostle"--Apostle is in apposition with Paul.
May more than one of the clauses enumerated above, occur in the same sentence?
They may.
Does every sentence contain one of these clauses?
No; there are some simple sentences that do not contain any of these clauses; as, "I love my mother."
ORAL EXERCISE.
Tell to what class each of the following sentences belong. When a clause occurs, tell what kind of a clause it is.
1. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness!
2. There are men in the world, who are dead to every generous impulse.
3. Have you heard the news that has just been received by the steamer?
4. Rising from his seat, the monarch gazed around; and, darting a look of scorn on his humbled courtiers, bade them leave his presence till they should become honest men.
5. My son, do you indulge in anger?
6. O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo?
7. Who ever hears of fat men heading a riot, or herding together in turbulent mobs?
8. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds.
9. The ship being now under sail, the shore began to recede rapidly from our sight.
10. Lord Hastings, who had bore himself most bravely throughout the whole battle, escaped with a slight wound.
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11. James, whom I sent to the river an hour ago, has not yet returned.
12. What an accident! Did you ever witness a scene like this?
13. Where Freedom rears her banner, a new empire has arisen.
CHAPTER XXIII.
COMPOSITION.
What is the term "Composition" derived from?
It is derived from two Latin words, which signify "to put together."
What is "composition" then?
It is a "putting together."
Can we speak of the "composition" of a substance, like paste or varnish?
We can.
What do we mean by it?
We mean "the putting together" of the material of which the substance is made up.
When we speak of the "composition" of a picture, what do we mean?
We mean "the putting together" of the different objects which make up the picture; as, a mountain, trees, a river, & c.When we speak of a "composition" on any subject, what do we mean?
We mean "a putting together" of the thoughts which belong to the subject.
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Suppose you were to write "Grass is green;" "Birds sing;" "John is blind;" would that be composition?"
It would not.
Why?
Because the thoughts are not connected with each other, nor with a subject.
Suppose you take for your subject, "A blind boy;" and write, "John is blind; he cannot see that the grass is green, but he can hear the birds sing:" is that "composition?"
It is.
Why?
Because the three thoughts, "John is blind," "Grass is green," "Birds sing," are connected with each other, and with the subject, "A blind boy."
How, then, can thoughts which are independent of each other, often be united?
By introducing another thought which will connect them.
Give an example.
In the example, "John is blind; he cannot see that the grass is green, but he can hear the birds sing,"--the two thoughts, "he cannot see," "but can hear," connect the three independent thoughts, "John is blind," "Grass is green," "Birds sing."
Are there not many thoughts belonging to every subject?
There are.
How should these be "put together?"
They should be so "put together," that they will appear to follow each other in a natural order.
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In what, then, does "composition" consist?
It consists in "putting together," in a natural order, thoughts belonging to a subject.
CHAPTER XXIV.
DESCRIPTION.
What has "Composition" been defined to be?
Composition has been defined to be "a putting together" of thoughts under a subject.
Are there not many kinds of composition?
There are.
What is the first kind of composition?
"Descriptive" is the first principal kind of composition. What is "description?"
It is "a putting together" of our impression of any object or scene.
Why is this called the first kind of composition?
Because it relates to that which we see, and that which we see, lies at the beginning of Thought.
How, only, can we learn to describe well?
By studying attentively, the object or scene which we wish to describe.
What is necessary to a good description?
That those particulars be given, in which the object or scene differs from other objects or scenes.
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If I were to ask you to describe your kitten, and you should say, "It has whiskers, four legs, and a tail," would that be a good description?
It would not.
Why not?
Because it mentions only things which are common to all kittens, and does not describe any particular one.
Suppose you were to say instead, "It has a glossy black fur, a white diamond between its eyes, and one white whisher," would that be a good description?
It would be.
Why?
Because it describes particulars which distinguish the kitten from other kittens?
Do not such particulars enable us to distinguish objects of the same kind from each other?
They do.
Could not a dog be distinguished among a hundred others, by one who was familiar with it?
It could.
What, then, is a good rule for describing an object?
To give those particulars by which we know it from other objects of the same kind.
What is a scene?
A scene is a combination of objects.
How, then, should a scene be described?
By giving those particulars, in the objects and their arrangement; by which it is distinguished from other scenes.
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SUBJECTS.
DIRECTIONS TO THE PUPIL.
SUBJECT NO. 1.
You may take the subject which you will find upon the following page, and write your own answers to the questions.
Take each question by itself, and do your best to answer it fully; using the same language as in speaking. When you have done this, join these answers together in correct sentences.
Your composition will then be done, all except copying. In copying, the principal things to remember are these:
TO WRITE NEATLY.
TO SPELL CORRECTLY, AND
TO BEGIN EVERY NEW SENTENCE WITH A CAPITAL LETTER.
If you attend to these directions your composition will then be ready to hand to your teacher.
SUBJECT NO. 1.
STRAWBERRIES.
1. Is not the strawberry season always anticipated with great pleasure by the children?
2. How early does the plant begin to show its blossoms?
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3. What kind of flowers are they?
4. When the flower disappears, what does it leave?