]> <emph>First Book in Composition, Applying the Principles of Grammar to the Art of Composing:</emph><emph>Also, Giving Full Directions for Punctuation; Especially Designed for the Use of Southern Schools:</emph> Electronic Edition. Branson, L. (Levi), b. 1832 Funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services supported the electronic publication of this title. Text scanned (OCR) by Victoria Strickland-Cordial Images scanned by Victoria Strickland-Cordial and Jeanine Cali Text encoded by Jeanine Cali and Natalia Smith First edition, 1999 ca. 250K Academic Affairs Library, UNC-CH University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1999.

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 Call number VC 375.42 B82f (North Carolina Collection, UNC-CH) First Book in Composition, Applying the Principles of Grammar to the Art of Composing: Also, Giving Full Directions for Punctuation; Especially Designed for the Use of Southern Schools. L. Branson, A. M. Raleigh:Branson, Farrar & Co.1863

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 Library of Congress Subject Headings, 21st edition, 1998 Latin English language -- Composition and exercises. English language -- Grammar. Textbooks -- Confederate States of America. Education -- Confederate States of America. Confederate States of America -- Juvenile literature. 1999-11-30, Celine Noel and Wanda Gunther revised TEIHeader and created catalog record for the electronic edition. 1999-07-23, Natalia Smith, project manager, finished TEI-conformant encoding and final proofing. 1999-07-22, Jeanine Cali finished TEI/SGML encoding 1999-05-31, Victoria Strickland-Cordial finished scanning (OCR) and proofing.

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 FIRST BOOK IN COMPOSITION, APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR TO THE ART OF COMPOSING: ALSO, GIVING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR PUNCTUATION; ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SOUTHERN SCHOOLS, BY L. BRANSON, A.M. RALEIGH: BRANSON, FARRAR & CO. 1863. Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1862, BY L. BRANSON, A. M. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Confederate States, for the Eastern District of North Carolina. A.M. GORMAN, PRINTER. PREFACE.

No subject is more difficult to the mind of the Pupil, than that of Composition; and yet, strange as it may seem, he is usually expected to compose without any assistance whatever from books. — Teachers have sometimes objected to the use of works on Composition, lest the mind of the pupil should be cramped, or the style should become artificial, but these are groundless objections. Every student's style is compelled to be more or less artificial in acquirement and yet it may be perfectly natural in its disposition.

To acquire a love of the subject, is a great point gained in the acquisition of any science. This work is designed to make the art of composing both easy and agreeable.

As soon as the student can read intelligibly, he may commence the study of this Book. The exercises found, will naturally lead him to the habit of writing, and gradually draw out the mind to the practice of thinking, and finally to that of independent composition.

This Book if studied before English Grammar will greatly aid the pupil in the acquisition of that science, while the more advanced student may find it altogether profitable.

In the hope that it may be useful to the young of our great rising Confederacy, the work is respectfully offered to the public.

 CONTENTS. I. Letters, Vowels, Consonants, Syllables . . . . . 9. II. Words, Articles . . . . . 10. III. Nouns, . . . . . 12. IV. Pronouns. . . . . 13. V. Adjectives, . . . . . 15. VI. Verbs, . . . . . 16. VII. Adverbs, . . . . . 17. VIII. Exercise on Adverbs, . . . . . 19. IX. Conjunctions, . . . . . 20 X. Prepositions, . . . . . 22. XI. Interjections, . . . . . 24. XII. A Review, . . . . . 26. XIII. Miscellaneous Exercise, . . . . . 27. XIV. Miscellaneous Exercise, . . . . . 28. XV. The Subject. . . . .28. XVI. Exercise, . . . . . 31. XVII. The Object—Transitive & Intransitive Verbs, . . . . . 32. XVIII. Personal, Relative, Interogative and Adjective Pronouns, . . . . . 35. XIX. The Relative Pronoun and Relative Clause, . . . . . 38 XX. Participles—Participial Clauses, . . . . . 39. XXI. A Review, . . . . . 41. XXII. Sentences, Phrases, Clauses, Apposition, . . . . . 43 XXIII. Composition, . . . . . . 46. XXIV. Description, . . . . . 48. SUBJECTS. No. 1. Strawberries, . . . . .50 “ 2. Ants, . . . . .52 “ 3. Frogs, . . . . .53 “ 4. Flies, . . . . .55 “ 5. Bird's-nests, . . . . . 56 “ 6. Chesnuts, . . . . .58 “ 7. Katy-dids, . . . . .59 “ 8. Apple Trees, . . . . .61 “ 9. Rain, . . . . .62 “ 10. Frost, . . . . . 64 “ 11. Snow, . . . . .66 “ 12. Ice, . . . . . .67 “ 13. Night, . . . . .69 “ 14. Morning, . . . . 71 “ 15. Trees, . . . . .73 “ 16. Flowers. . . . . .74 PUNCTUATION. 1. Period, Interrogation Point, Exclamation Point, . . . . .77 2. Colon and Semicolon, . . . . . 79 3. Comma, . . . . .80 4. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .82 5. Dash, Parenthesis, Brackets, . . . . .84 6. Other Marks used in Writing, . . . . .86 7. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .87 8. Exercise in Punctuation, . . . . .88 9. Rules for the use of Capitals, . . . . .90 10. A Review, . . . . .92 11. A Review, . . . . .93 DIVISION II. No. 1. Autumn Leaves, . . . . .95 “ 2. Moss, . . . . .97 “ 3. Wild Flowers, . . . . .99 “ 4. Roses, . . . . .101 “ 5. Water-Lilies, . . . . .102 “ 6. Recess, . . . . .104 “ 7. Blind Man's Buff, . . . . .106 No. 8. A Pic-Nic, . . . . .108 “ 9. A Sleigh Ride, . . . . .110 “ 10. A Menagerie, . . . . .112 “ 11. A Fair, . . . . . 114 “ 12. Thanksgiving, . . . . .116 “ 13. Fourth of July, . . . . .117 “ 14. Christmas, . . . . .119 DIVISION III. No. 1. A Mountain, . . . . .121 “ 2. A Brook, . . . . .123 “ 3. A Waterfall, . . . . .125 “ 4. A Spring, . . . . .127 “ 5. A Moonlight Scene, . . . . .129 No. 6. A Thunder Storm, . . . . .130 “ 7. A Snow Storm . . . . .132 “ 8. An Aurora Borealis, . . . . .134 “ 9. A Sunrise, . . . . .136 “10. A Sunset. . . . . .138 FIRST BOOK IN COMPOSITION. CHAPTER I. LETTERS, VOWELS, CONSONANTS, SYLLABLES.

What is a letter?

A letter represents a sound.

How many letters are used in the English Language?

Twenty-six.

Repeat them.

A, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.

What are the letters called, when taken all together?

THE ALPHABET.

How are these letters classified?

Into two distinct classes.

What are these classes called?

Vowels and consonants.

Which represent the heavier tones?

The Tonics—a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not commencing a syllable.

What are Tonic sounds?

Sounds made with the mouth open and the tongue not raised.

Which letters represent the next heavier sounds?

The Subtonics—c, d, g, j, l, m, ng, r, v, w, y, z, wh, th, and w and y beginning a syllable.

What are Sub-Tonic sounds?

Sounds made farther down the throat, and less distinct than the Tonic.

Which letters represent the aspirations or breathings?

The At-Tonics, f, h, k, p, q, s, t, th.

What are At-Tonic sounds?

Sounds without any tone, simply breathings.

Of how many sounds is the word goodness composed?

Two, good and ness.

What are small words, when used to compose larger ones, called?

Syllables.

What is a syllable?

One of the natural divisions of a word.

How many syllables does a word generally have?

One for each distinct vowel sound; el-e-phant.

Are all words of more than one syllable really compound words?

They are.

When is a syllable compound?

When it is composed of more than one letter, as, a-word.

What do letters compose?

Syllables.

What do syllables compose?

Words.

What do words compose?

Members or clauses.

What do members compose?

Sentences.

What do sentences compose?

Chapters.

 CHAPTER II. WORDS—ARTICLES.

How do you convey your thoughts?

By Words.

What does a word indicate when spoken?

An idea.

Through what medium does it convey an idea to the mind?

The ear.

What does a word indicate when written?

An Idea.

Through what medium?

The eye.

NOTE. We hear spoken words, and see those which are written.

How are words divided?

Into parts of speech.

Why are they thus divided?

For convenience.

How many parts of speech and what are they called?

Nine: viz., Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection.

Which is the simplest part of speech?

The Article.

What is an Article?

An Article is a word placed before another word to limit its meaning.

How many Articles are there?

Two; A and The.

When we say the man, what do we mean?

Some particular man.

When we say a man, what is meant?

Any man.

What is the called?

A definite Article.

Why?

Because it points out some person or thing definitely.

What is a called?

An indefinite Article.

Why?

Because it points out some person or thing indefinitely.

Why is n used after a frequently, as an enemy?

To prevent two tonic sounds from coming together.

Where is a used?

A is used before words commencing with sub-tonic sounds, as, a cat, a goat, a man, a unit, a eulogy. Where is n used after the a?

Before words commencing with a tonic sound; as, an enemy, an hour.

 CHAPTER III. NOUNS.

What is the next part of speech in order?

The Noun.

What are the names of all persons and things?

Nouns.

What is North Carolina?

A Noun.

How do you define a Noun?

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, John, Raleigh, Book.

How many classes of nouns are there?

Two; Common and Proper.

What is a common noun?

A common noun is a common name; as, town, city, tree, cow.

Define a Proper noun.

A Proper noun is a proper or particular name; as, Charles Fisher, Newbern, Yadkin.

How do proper nouns always commence?

With a capital letter.

Is Tennessee a common or proper noun?

A Proper noun, because it is a particular name. What kind of a noun is State?

A common noun, because it is a name given to all States.

EXERCISE.

Fill up the following sentences by inserting in place of the dash (—) a common or a proper noun, as may be needed.

EXAMPLE.—is planted in April.

FILLED. Cotton is planted in April.

1.—is a Confederate State.

2. Gen.—reduced Fort Sumter.

3. South Carolina is the greatest—country in the Confederate States.

4. Louisiana raises more—than any other State in the Confederacy.

5. The mountains of North Carolina are a great—of resort for—and pleasure.

6. The Sea—are pleasant and healthy.

7. Nearly all the—of America is raised in—and—.

 CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS.

What is the word Pronoun composed of?

Pro, which means for, and noun, a name.

In the sentence, “William learns his lesson,” what does his stand for?

The Name William.

Could we dispense with the word his?

Yes; by saying William learns William's lesson.

Then why do we use the word his?

Because it is shorter than the noun William, and answers the same purpose.

What do we call all words standing for nouns?

Pronouns.

Define a Pronoun.

Pronouns are used instead of nouns.

Are they always used instead of nouns?

No; sometimes they only relate to nouns, and sometimes merely point them out.

Mention the Pronouns that stand for persons and things.

I, thou, he, she, it.

What are these called?

Personal Pronouns.

Mention those relating to nouns.

Who, which, that, and what.

Give an example.

He is the man, who captured the flag.

Mention the Pronouns that simply point out nouns.

This, that, any, one, all, such, some, both, another, none, each, every, either, neither.

Give an example.

That man is sober; both boys were to blame.

What are these called?

Adjective pronouns.

You should take sufficient notice of these pronouns to know them wherever you see them, since they are used very often in all books.

EXERCISE.

In following sentences insert pronouns to fill the dashes.

EXAMPLE. The hail has broken—corn.

FILLED. The hail has broken my corn.

1. Abraham. Lincoln led—people into war.

2. I will obey—parents.

3. The South is—native land.

4. Give me—pencil. I will return—.

5. People love the land of—birth.

6. Are—going to learn—lesson?

7. I gave the beggar—hat, and—thanked me very politely.

8. Jefferson Davis defended—country bravely, and deserves great applause for—patriotism.

9. Napoleon desired to render—name immortal by conquering Empires and extending—rule over all the world.

10. The climate of—country is soft and balmy; no— land is more highly favored.

11. Those people—live in North Carolina hhealthy alech and delightful climate.

12. Washington, in—youth, and throughout—whole life, adhered strictly to the truth, and thus set an example, which —ought to follow.

13. The works of creation invite—to contemplate the greatness and goodness of—Creator.

14. If—think—never do wrong—deceive— for almost every moment—are guilty of sin.

15. General Andrew Jackson, at the battle of New Orleans, showed —valor by bravely commanding—own men, and entirely routing—of the enemy, and killing many of—on the field.

 CHAPTER V. ADJECTIVES.

What is the next part of speech called?

The ADJECTIVE.

In the sentence, “Apples are good fruit,” which word is a noun?

Fruit is a noun, because it is a name.

Which word describes fruit?

Good.

What part of speech is good?

An ADJECTIVE.

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun or pronoun.

Give one or two examples.

A bad boy. A large tree. A great ox. Samuel is disobedient.

In the examples given, which words are adjectives?

Bad, large, great, and disobedient.

What other kind of adjectives do we have?

NUMERAL.

Give a few examples.

Three, seven, eight, third, seventh, eighth.

What do these words express?

NUMBER. All numeral adjectives express number.

EXERCISE.

Complete the following sentences by inserting an adjective in place of each dash. Do not use the same adjective more than once.

EXAMPLE. A—day. Putting in an adjective, a rainy day; a pleasant day; an unfortunate day.

1. In New England it is very—during winter; and— deaths occur from the rigors of the climate.

2. Winter in the West Indies is—and the climate is delightful for—persons.

3. Columbus was the— man that crossed the—Ocean. He—landed on one of the West Indie islands, and performed worship to the—Creator.

4. The whale is a—animal; he often does—damage with a—stroke of his tail.

5. We live in a—mansion, which has—chimneys.

6. In the woods we may—flowers; the—rose, the—dandelion, and the—lilly.

7. Be a—boy while at school, and you may make a— man when you are old.

8. John has studied the—lesson and deserves a—grade.

9. Remember to be—to your teachers and—to your parents.

10. William has a—book, a—slate, and a—uniform.

 CHAPTER VI. VERBS.

What is the fifth part of speech called?

The Verb.

In the sentence “Sarah reads Latin,” which word tells what Sarah does?

Reads.

In the sentence, “Mary sleeps,” which word tells us the state Mary is in?

Sleeps.

What do we call reads and sleeps?

Verbs.

What is a verb?

A verb is word that expresses action, or a state of being.

In the sentence “William is industrious,” what part of speech is William, and why? What is is, and why? What is good, and why?

EXERCISE.

Where a dash occurs insert a verb that will complete the sense.

EXAMPLE. The trees—large roots, so as to—the winter winds.

COMPLETED. The trees have large roots so as to resist the winter winds.

1. In autumn the farmer—his harvest, and—it away in barns. The leaves—from the trees, and the wind— through the branches.

2. Whatever you—to do,—it quickly; never— till to-morrow what—to-day.

3. Let us—early, and—much work.

4. Cows—milk, which we—into butter and cheese.

5. Richard—to the concert, and—Dixie's Land sung.

6. A farmer—a snake, almost frozen to death, under a hedge; moved with compassion, he—it to his house, and—it near the fire. No sooner did the heat—to revive it, than the snake—upon his wife,—one of his children, and— the whole family into terror and confusion. “Ungrateful wretch!” —the farmer; “I find it—useless to—favors on the undeserving.” With these words he—a hatchet, and— the snake into pieces.

7. Indian tribes—in the forest. They sometimes—the white man as he—on his journey, and—goods from him.

8. The horse—a noble animal. He can—, or—, and at the same time—a man on his back, or—a wagon behind him.

 CHAPTER VII. ADVERBS.

What is the sixth part of speech called?

The Adverb.

What is the meaning of the word Adverb?

Joined to a verb.

Why are adverbs joined to verbs?

To modify them.

In the sentence “Beauregard fought bravely,” what word tells how he fought?

Bravely.

Then bravely is joined to, or modifies what word?

The verb fought.

What part of speech then, is bravely?

An Adverb.

Are adverbs ever joined to any other words besides verbs?

Yes; adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs.

In the sentence, “Beauregard fought very bravely,” what word tells how bravely Beauregard fought?

Very.

Then very is joined to bravely; what part of speech is bravely?

An Adverb.

Then since very is joined to the adverb bravely, what part of speech is it?

An Adverb.

In the sentence, “John is very diligent,” to what is very joined?

To the adjective diligent.

What part of speech is it, then?

An adverb.

What is an adverb?

An Adverb is a word used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what words they modify.

1. James talks sensibly.

2. He studies very hard, and stands well in his class.

3. I like him very much.

Mention some of the principal classes of adverbs.

1. Adverbs of manner, which end for the most part in ly; as swiftly, boldly, quickly, slowly, handsomely, & c.

2. Adverbs of time; as, now, then, yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, immediately, often, always, never, ever, again, soon, seldom, hitherto, & c.

3. Adverbs of place; as, here, there, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, where, and its compounds nowhere, elsewhere, anywhere & c.

4. Adverbs of quality; as, much, little, enough, & c.

5. Adverbs of degree; as, very, almost, nearly, & c.

What other words express manner and are liable to be confounded with adverbs of manner?

Adjectives.

What is the difference between them?

An adjective is a word used to describe a noun; an adverb, to describe or modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

How can you tell them apart?

When a word expressing manner is joined to a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective; when it is joined to a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb.

EXERCISE.

Make a list, in order, of the adjectives that occur in the following sentences.

Make a separate list of the adverbs, in order.

1. The early hours of sleep are the most sweet and refreshing.

2. The Bedouin Arabs are, for the most part, small, meagre, and tawny.

3. Quicksilver is a valuable metal; it has hitherto been imported chiefly from Spain, Germany, and Peru.

4. I will assist you most cheerfully if you will be careful and attentive.

5. Those who are virtuous may not always be happy here, but they will certainly receive their reward hereafter.

6. Large armies generally march slowly.

7. He who forms conclusions too quickly, often forms them incorrectly.

8. If you are attentive you will learn grammar very fast.

9. The Portugese were once the most enterprising navigators of Europe; they founded colonies in many parts of the world, before totally unknown.

10. I have heard better singing to-day than I ever heard before.

11. He who tries hard, seldom fails to succeed.

 CHAPTER VIII. EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.

Where a dash occurs insert an adverb that will complete the sense.

EXAMPLE. I labored—.

COMPLETED. I labored faithfully.

1. Josephine sings—, and dances—.

2. The house is—tall, and is—built.

3. We are—going to the grave.

4. I saw him—; he was running—down the hill side.

5. Listen—, and you will—be able to understand the subject.

6. General Stuart—started in pursuit; he—overtook the enemy,—led on the attack in person, and gained a complete victory.

7. Time past—returns; improve the moments, therefore, as —as you can.

8. The horse trotted—. John ate—.

9. The lion roars—. The kitten plays—.

10. The rain began to fall—, and they were—wet.

11. The poor boy was—hurt.

12. This room will hold twenty persons very—.

13. He—gave the poor man his purse.

14. When are you going?—.

15. Do you see him? Yes he is—.

 CHAPTER IX. CONJUNCTIONS.

What is the seventh part of speech called?

The Conjunction.

When I say “Mary learns her lesson,” what is the expression called?

A sentence.

What is a sentence?

Such an assemblage of words as makes complete senes.

Would “Kate to the fair,” be a sentence?

No; because it would not make complete sense.

Make a complete sentence of it.

“Kate has gone to the fair.”

In the sentence “James got up early and went to market,” how many parts are there, and what are they?

Two; “James got up early” is one, “went to market” is the other.

What are such parts of a sentence called?

Clauses.

What word connects the two clauses in the above sentence?

And.

What does the word conjunction mean?

A connecting together.

What, then, may and, and all such words as connect clauses, be called?

Conjunctions.

Do conjunctions ever connect any thing else besides clauses?

Yes; conjunctions connect words also.

Give me a sentence in which there is a conjunction connecting words.

“Mary turned and wept;” here the conjunction and connects the verbs turned and wept.

Give me another.

“George and Henry have gone to Raleigh;” here the conjunction and connects the nouns George and Henry.

Now tell me, what is a conjunction?

A conjunction is a word used to connect other words and clauses.

Mention some of the principal conjunctions.

And, because, if, that, or, nor, either, neither, but, lest, notwithstanding, therefore, though, unless, than, as.

What is a sentence?

What is a clause?

What is a conjunction?

EXERCISE.

Where a dash occurs, insert a conjunction that will complete the sense.

EXAMPLE. He went to the ball,—he was ordered to remain.

COMPLETED. He went to the ball, although he was ordered to remain.

1. Either you must go,—I. John—Mary are here.

2. Neither the wagon,—the carriage has arrived.

3. We will not go fishing,—it rains.

4. Hannibal took an oath—he would conquer the Romans.

5. He did not get a premium,—he did not deserve it.

6. Mary has excellent parents,—she is a bad girl.

7. Do not buy the book—you can get it for a shilling.

8. I like to see a hard shower,—I never walk out in one.

9. My father—mother are going to Raleigh to-morrow— it be clear.

10. Let those who stand, beware—they fall.

11. The happy often forget—others are miserable.

12. General Lee defeated the Yankees,—his army was much smaller—theirs.

13. None will deny—the hawk flies more swiftly—the pigeon.

14.—you do your duty you will not be blamed.

15. I saw my cousin—I was turning the corner.

 CHAPTER X. PREPOSITIONS.

What is the eighth part of speech called?

The PREPOSITION.

In the sentence, “William walked to Charleston,” what word shows the relation between William's walking and Charleston?

To.

How is this word to placed?

Before the noun Charleston.

What does the word preposition mean?

A placing before.

What then may we call to, and all similar words?

Prepositions.

What is a Preposition?

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun, to show the relation between it, and some other word or words in the sentence.

Mention the principal prepositions.*

* The pupil ought to commit this list to memory. among around about above across according to after against amidst at before behind below beneath beside between beyond by concerning down during except for from in into instead of near of on out of, over respecting through throughout to towards up upon under unto with within without EXERCISE.

Wherever a dash occurs, insert a preposition that will complete the sense.

EXAMPLE. Nothing can be accomplished—an effort.

COMPLETED. Nothing can be accomplished without an effort.

1. In Greenland, the people live— wretched huts.

2. Steamboats run—Vicksburg—Memphis.

3. —the summer, the cattle love to lie—shady trees.

4. The camel has a hump—his back.

5. —patience and perseverance you may attain the highest station —society.

6. He gave the book—me, and I placed it—the table.

7. You must perform examples—the rule.

8. It is dark—sunset.

9. She lives—Piedmont, twenty-five miles—Salem.

10. A large rock hangs—the path.

11. The sailor likes to get—port.

12. Always keep virtue and duty—your eyes.

13. I live—my father.

14. A farmer was bitten—a snake, while he was standing — the weeds.

15. The ferry-boat will take us—the river.

 CHAPTER XI. INTERJECTIONS.

What is the ninth and last part of speech?

The INTERJECTION.

In the sentence “Alas! I am undone!” what word is thrown in to express the sorrow of the speaker?

Alas!

What does the word interjection mean?

A throwing in.

What, then, may alas! and similar words be called?

Interjections.

What is an Interjection?

An Interjection is a word used to express some sudden feeling of the speaker.

What are the principal feelings which are expressed by interjections?

Sorrow, triumph, disgust, wonder; there are also interjections of calling, of attention, of saluting, of taking leave.

Mention the principal interjections of sorrow.

Oh! ah! alas! alack!

Mention those expressing triumph.

Hurrah! huzza! bravo! aha!

Mention those expressing disgust.

Indeed! fudge! pshaw! tush! away! begone!

Mention those expressing wonder.

Indeed! strange! what!

Mention those of calling.

Hallo! ho!

Mention those of attention.

Behold! lo! hark! listen! see! hush! hist!

Mention those of saluting.

O! (O is always used with a pronoun, or the name of an object addressed; as, O thou! O James!) welcome! hail!

Mention those of taking leave.

Adieu! farewell! good b'ye!

What mark is that (!) which you see placed after each of the above interjections?

An Exclamation Point.

When you write an interjection, what must you place after it?

An exclamation point.

In the exercise that follows, how will you know which of the above interjections to insert in place of the dash?

I will read the whole sentence, and put in an interjection that is appropriate; thus, if the sentence express sorrow, I will insert an interjection of sorrow; if wonder, I will insert one of wonder, & c.

EXERCISE.

Where a dash occurs, insert a suitable interjection.

EXAMPLE. —! the victory is ours!

COMPLETED. Hurrah! the victory is ours!

1. —! I am surprised at this.

2. My house is on fire; —! I am undone.

3. —! what strange figure is this that is approaching?

4. —! my friend; I am glad to see you.

5. —! the cannon are booming; the battle has begun.

6. —!dishonest wretch; I despise thee!

7. —! our friend has conquered.

8. —! stranger; will you tell a traveller where he is?

9. —! no one can tell how much the poor suffer.

10.—! is it thus you behave?

11. I hope you may have a pleasant journey.—!

12. —! what noise was that?

13. —! poor fellow! I am sorry for him.

14. —! John, where are you going?

15. Who is that?—! he is descending the hill.

16. —! is it really so! impossible!

17. —! thou blessed sun, that spreadest gladness over the earth.

18. —! I am at the head of my class.

 CHAPTER XII. A REVIEW.

[The pupil has answered all the questions given below, as they occurred the preceding lessons; but as he may have forgotten some of them, he must look back for the answers, and learn them carefully.]

What is a letter?

What is a vowel? Name the vowels.

What is a consonant? Name the consonants.

What two letters are sometimes vowels, and at other times consonants?

When are they vowels, and when consonants?

What is a syllable?

What is a word?

How many parts of speech are there? Mention them.

What is an article? Mention the articles.

What is a noun? Give an example.

How many kinds of nouns are there? What is a proper noun? What is a common noun?

What is a pronoun? Mention the principal pronouns.

What is an adjective? Give an example.

What is a verb? Give an example.

What is an adverb? Give an example. Mention the different kinds of adverbs, and give an example of each.

What is a sentence?

What are distinct members or parts of sentences called?

What is a conjunction? Mention some of the principal conjunctions.

What is a preposition? Mention some of the principal propositions.

What is an interjection? What are the principal classes of interjections?

Mention one of each class.

 CHAPTER XIII. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE.

In this lesson and the next, the pupil, wherever a blank occurs, must insert whatever part of speech is required to complete the sense. Following the spelling and punctuation of the book.

 MARTINS.

Martins a kind of swallows. They feed flies, and other insects, and skim swiftly through air, in pursuit of their prey. In the morning are up by day-break, and twitter about your window, while are asleep bed. They a e harmless, and, as people do not molest them, they build their in townsvillages. They are small birds, buta great deal. I will a couple of stories, illustrating their sagacity.

A pair of martins, who their nest in aporch, had some young ones; and happened that one of them, in to climb the side, fell out, and striking the stones, was killed. The old , seeing this accident, went and strong pieces of straw, and fastened them mud all around the , in order to keep the from meeting a similar.

Here is another about them. While a martin was absent from his nest one day, a cock-sparrow took possessionit; when the owner and to enter, he put out bill, and commenced pecking at him. The martin, notpleased with this invasion of his, flew away, and a number of his companions. They all came the nest, with bits of clay in their , with which plastered up theto the nest; so the sparrow, unable to food and air, died.

 CHAPTER XIV. EXERCISE. THE DUKE AND THE GALLEY-SLAVES.

The King of Spain once gave to Duke of Ossuna to release such of the galley-slaves asmight think proper. The Duke, as heamong the slaves who were at the oars, asked them in succession of what crime they hadguilty. They all protested innocence, and him that they had been unjustly . One attributed his condemnation to theof an enemy, another to theof his judge. At last, however, he one who admitted that, to save his from starving, he had robbed a man of , on highway. The Duke, he heard this, gave him a stroke the back his hand, and said, “ Get you gone, you rogue, from the of honest men.” So who confessed fault was released, while the , for their want of were compelled to at their labors.

Thus we see we are not likely to lose any thing by a admission of faults.

 CHAPTER XV. THE SUBJECT.

When I say, “Charles walks,” who is it that I speak about?

Charles.

In the sentence, “The oak has been cut down,“ what is it that I speak about?

The oak.

What do we call Charles, oak, and all words respecting which an action or state is affirmed?

SUBJECTS.

What is the subject of a verb?

The subject of a verb is that respecting which the action or state expressed by the verb is affirmed.

How may you always find the subject of a verb?

Put the word who or what before the verb, and the answer to the question will be the subject.

Give me an example. In the sentence, “John went to market,” what is the subject?

Put who before the verb, and the answer to the question will be the subject; thus, “Who went to market?” Answer, John.

John, therefore, is the subject.

In the sentence, “Virtue is a source of happiness,” find the subject in the ame manner as above.

Put what before the verb; “What is a source of happiness?’

Answer, Virtue. Virtue is the subject.

In the same manner select the subjects in the following sentences:

Bees make honey. Virginia is a large state.

Quarrels are unpleasant. Charles was late at school.

The flute makes fine music. We are tired of walking.

The machine was invented in England. You are wrong.

Gratitude is a noble feeling. Science enlarges the mind.

They are very sick. We were disappointed.

In last two sentences, what are the subjects?

They and we.

What part of speech are they and we?

Pronouns.

May pronouns, then, be subjects of a verb?

They may.

In the sentence, “To steal is base,” find the subject as above.

Put what before the verb; “What is base! Answer, to steal.

To steal is the subject.

What part of speech is steal?

A verb, because it expresses action.

When a verb has to before it, we say it is in the infinitive mood; may a verb in the infinitive mood, then, be the subject of another verb?

It may.

What mood is a verb in, when it has to before it?

A verb is in the infinitive mood when it has to before it.

How may we know when a verb is in the infinitive mood?

By seeing whether it has to before it.

Is to play in the infinitive mood? to jump? to walk? Mention six more verbs in the infinitive mood.

May a verb in the infinitive mood be the subject of another verb?

It may.

Give me several examples, and mention the subject.

To lie is dishonorable: here, to lie is the subject. To travel is pleasant: to travel is the subject.

Make three short sentences of your own, like the above, in which a verb in the infinitive mood will be the subject of another verb, and mention the subject in each sentence.

In the sentence, “Whether we shall go to Columbia is uncertain,” find the subject in the manner described above.

Put what before the verb: “What is uncertain? Answer, whether we shall go to Columbia. These words, therefore, whether we shall go to Columbia, are the subject.

These words form part of a sentence; may, then, part of a sentence be the subject of a verb?

It may.

Find, as above, the subjects in the following sentences:

1. To fall from the top of a church-steeple, is certain death.

2. For a weak nation to provoke a strong one, is bad policy.

3. That even the best men commit sin, is proved by daily experience.

Now, let us see, what have we found that a verb may have for its subject?

A verb may have for its subject,

I. A noun; as, John walks;

II. A pronoun; as, they are gone;

III. A verb in the infinitive mood; as, to dig is hard work;

IV. Part of a sentence; as, doing one's duty secures happiness.

Select the subject in each of the sentences just given as examples.

EXERCISE.

Select and write out the subject in each of the following sentences; if you are in any doubt, put who or what before the verb, as directed above.

EXAMPLE. Working in quicksilver mines is very injurious to the health.

Subject. Working in quicksilver mines.

1. We should improve our time.

2. Digging potatoes is hard work.

3. To reveal a friend's secrets is dishonorable.

4. Cicero was a celebrated orator.

5. Wealth does not always procure esteem.

6. Temperance and exercise preserve health.

7. Time and tide wait for no man.

8. For an ignorant person to profess to teach philosophy, only exposes him to ridicule.

9. Whether it will rain is uncertain.

10. John and I will start in the morning

11. Where are the women going?

12. To be wise in his own eyes, is the mark of a fool.

 CHAPTER XVI. EXERCISE.

Where a blank occurs, insert a subject, either a noun, a pronoun, or a verb in the infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, as may be required to complete the sense.

EXAMPLE. and lead to wealth.

Completed. Industry and frugality lead to wealth.

1.and gnaw holes in the floor.

2.,, and, are used for drawing loads.

3. *is dishonorable.

4. am going to school.

5. is a useful study.

* Here the pupil must insert a verb in the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence.

6. Has thearrived?

7.attends carefully to his lessons.

8. Havewritten your exercise?

9.andare made from milk.

10. *is a proof of dishonesty.

11. *is the practice of a bad boy.

12. *is unpleasant work.

13. *is the business of the baker.

14. marched by with a fine band of music.

* Here the pupil must insert a verb in the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence. CHAPTER XVII. THE OBJECT.—TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

In the sentence, “Charles killed a fly,” what word expresses the object that receives the action expressed by the verb?

The word fly.

What do we call fly, in this sentence?

Fly is the OBJ ECT of the verb killed.

In the sentence, “Children love milk,” what is the object of the verb love?

Milk.

What is the object of a verb?

The object of a verb is that which receives the action expressed by the verb.

What is the object in each of the following sentences?

Bees make honey. Mary kindled the fire. My mother loves me. Birds build nests. I have broken my knife. John's father scolded him.

In the last two sentences what are the objects?

Me and him.

What part of speech are me and him?

Pronouns.

May a pronoun, then, be the object of a verb?

It may.

In the sentence, “John sleeps,” it there any object?

There is not.

Does the verb sleep admit an object after it?

It does not.

Into how many classes, then, may verbs be divided?

Into two classes;

I. TRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that express an act that may be done to an object.

II. INTRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that do not express an act that may be doue to an object.

Are verbs that express simply a state of being, transitive or intransitive?

Verbs that express a state of being are intransitive.

Why?

Because they do not express any action at all.

Is strike transitive or intransitive and why?

Strike is a transitive verb, because it admits an object after it. Thus we may say, “I strike a man;” in this sentence, man would be the object, and hence we find that strike is transitive.

Is live a transitive or intransitive verb?

Live is an intransitive verb, because it expresses simply a state of being, and does not admit an object after it.

Is sleep transitive or intransitive? jump? hurt? eat? dream? love? see? be? walk? run?

May any other put of speech besides a verb, have an object?

Yes; a preposition may have an object.

In the sentence, “John is lying on the grass,” what is the object of the preposition on?

Grass.

Make three short sentences similar to the one last given, in which there will be a preposition and its object.

How may you always find the object of a verb, or preposition?

By putting what or whom after it; the answer to the question will be the object.

Give me an example. Tell me the object of the verb and preposition in this sentence, “The butcher killed a pig with a knife.”

Put what after the verb—“The butcher killed what?” Answer, a pig; pig is the object of the verb killed. Put what after the preposition—“With what?” Answer, a knife; knife is the object of the preposition with.

EXERCISE.

Complete the following sentences by inserting an object where a blank occurs; either a noun or pronoun, as the sense may require.

1. In Egypt the Nile overflows the, and renders thefertile.

2. Boys can buy with their money.

3. I have found in the street a and a .

4. A man by honesty and will always gain the of his companions.

5. Henry's father bought him a for a Christmas .

6. When danger is nigh, a hen gathers her under her .

7. The fisherman is preparing to go to in a .

8. In building houses, they use, , and .

9. The mice have gnawed in this old .

10. The American Indians are very skilful with the bow and arrow; they can hit a very small at a great . With these weapons they often kill , , and other wild .

11. With your spare purchase books; read , profit by , and take good care of .

12. My brother loves me, and I love .

13. After we die, the grave will contain ; but our friends will remember , and shed on account of our departure.

14. Birds gather for their young, and teach how to fly.

15. The milk of the cow furnishes us and .

16. In church we see many , but should listen to the .

 CHAPTER XVIII. PERSONAL, RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

What is a pronoun? (See Lesson IV., if you do not remember.)

How many different classes of pronouns are there, and what are their names?

There are four classes of pronouns—Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective.

In the sentence,“I am tired,” for what does the pronoun I stand? For the name of the person speaking.

What kind of a pronoun is I?

A personal pronoun.

What is a personal pronoun?

A personal pronoun is a word, which, being used in a sentence without the noun for which it stands, merely represents it, without introducing any additional idea respecting it.

Mention the personal pronouns.

The personal pronouns are as follows: I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine, thee, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them.

In the sentence, “The Romans, who were victorious, lost only fifty men,’ to what word does the pronoun who relate; or, in other words, who are said to have been victorious?

Romans.

Then, since the pronoun who relates to Romans, what kind of a pronoun shall we call it?

A relative pronoun.

What is a relative pronoun?

A relative pronoun is a word that relates to a noun or pronoun before it.

What is this noun or pronoun going before, to which the relative relates called?

The antecedent.

In the sentence, “The boy who is idle will be unhappy,’ what is the relative, and what its antecedent?

Who is the relative, and boy is its antecedent.

Mention the relative pronouns.

The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, that.

Is who always a relative pronoun?

No; sometimes it does not relate to an antecedent, but is used to ask a question, as, “Who is there?”

What kind of a pronoun is it then called?

An interrogative pronoun.

What is an interrogative pronoun?

An interrogative pronoun is one that is used to ask a question.

Mention the interrogative pronouns?

The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.

What mark always follows a sentence that contains an interrogative pronoun?

The Interrogation Point (?) which ought to be placed after every question.

How, then, can you tell when who is relative pronoun, and when an interrogative?

By looking at the end of the sentence; if the interrogation point is there, it is for the most part an interrogative pronoun if not, it is a relative.

What are adjective pronouns?

Adjective Pronouns are words that are sometimes used instead of nouns, but are more frequently followed by their nouns, which they limit, or, qualify, after the manner of adjectives.

Give me one or two sentences containing adjective pronouns.

“Hand me that book.” “I have some apples.” “Have you any paper?” That, some, and any are adjective pronouns.

Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns?

This, that, these, those, some, no, none, any, all, each, every, either, neither.

How can you tell adjective pronouns?

By their being followed by a noun; as, these pens, some money, each breath, either side.

EXERCISE.

Make lists of the personal, relative, interrogative, and adjective pronouns, in order, as they occur in the following sentences. The pupil will do well to make his lists according to the following.

EXAMPLE. Jane, I told you to hand me that book which is lying on the table, but you have not done it. What is the reason?

 Lists.Personal. I, you, me, you, it. Relative. Which. Interrogative. What. Adjective That.

1. You say that* I am charged with a great crime. Who are my accusers? Let them stand forth, that I may see the authors of this base slander.

2. If every man would do his duty, none would have cause for complaint.

3. Can we stand patiently by, and see our property torn from us? No; each generous emotion of our hearts forbids it. Let this tyrant tremble, and all his satelites beware!

4. The men whom I saw had each a musket.

5. Wherever she went, every one seemed disposed to do her honor.

6. Look on this picture and on that.

NOTE. The word THAT, is sometimes a conjunction, sometimes a relative, and at other times an adjective pronoun; the pupil must decide which it is by the relation that it bears to other words in the sentence. In this sentence, THAT is not a relative, for it does not relate to any antecedent; it is not an adjective pronoun, for it is not joined to, or used for, any noun, but it is a conjunction, for it connects clauses. CHAPTER XIX. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSE.

What is a Relative Pronoun?

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to a noun or pronoun going before, called the antecedent.

What is the antecedent?

The antecedent is a noun or pronoun before the relative to which it relates.

In the sentence, “He that does right will be rewarded,” what is the relative and what the antecedent?

That is the relative, and he is the antecedent.

What service does the relative perform in a sentence?

The relative is used to introduce a clause for the purpose of limiting, explaining, or adding something further to what is being said.

What is a clause thus introduced by a relative, called?

A RELATIVE CLAUSE.

What is the relative clause in the sentence, “He that does right will be rewarded?”

That does right is the relative clause, because it is introduced by the relative that.

Select the relative, the antecedent, and the relative clause, in the following sentences.

1. The friends that we gain in childhood, often forget us in old age.

2. The wind, which had been shifting all day from point to point, now began to blow steadily from the south.

3. Those who are the most industrious are the most happy.

4. James, whose work was the best, received the premium.

5. I have seen the man that lives in the cave.

EXERCISE.

The sentences given in this exercise contain a relative and its antecedent; the pupil must complete them by inserting the relative clause, where the blank occurs. Before attempting to insert the clause, read the whole sentence, and then think of something that will be appropriate.

EXAMPLE. The study that is History.

Completed. The study that I like best is History.

Or, The study that I dislike most is History.

Or, The study that I find most difficult is History.

Each sentence may be completed in a variety of ways.

1. I have broken my watch, which.

2. The tree that, was blown down last night.

3. My father, who, has got well.

4. Those whowill be happy in this world, and still happier in the next.

5. Horses are very useful to those who.

6. In every school there are boys who.

7. Thomas found the knife which.

8. There is a boy whose.

9. Mary is the most dilligent girl that .

10. The good boy will apply himself vigorously to the lesson which.

11. The carriage whichhas been mended.

12. Columbus was the first man that .

13. The butterflies which,will all perish in winter.

14. The dog that has run away.

 CHAPTER XX. PARTICIPLES.—PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES.

In the sentence, “I saw John feeding his chickens,” which word implies action, and at the same time qualifies John?

Feeding.

Which part of speech implies action, and which qualifies nouns?

The verb implies action, and the adjective qualifies nouns.

The word feeding, then, partakes of the nature of what two parts of speech?

The verb and the adjective.

What name is given to feeding and similar words?

PARTICIPLES.

What is a participle?

A participle is a word that describes a noun or pronoun, by assigning to it a certain action or state.

Does the participle form a distinct part of speech?

No; participles are now classed as parts of verbs.

How many participles has every transitive verb?

Five.

Mention the five participles of the verb love.

Loving, loved, having loved, being loved, having been loved.

How many participles has every intransitive verb?

Two.

Mention the two participles of the intransitive verb walk.

Walking, having walked.

Give me two or three sentences containing participles, and select the participle in each.

James, while walking by the shore, saw large bass attacked by a shark.

Having been deceived once, I never trusted him again.

He died, loved and respected by all that knew him.

In the last sentence, what clause is introduced by the participles, loved and respected?

“Loved and respected by all that knew him.”

What is a clause introduced by, or containing a participle, called?

A PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE.

Select the participial clause in each of the three sentences given above.

EXERCISE.

Complete the following sentences by inserting a participle in place of the blank.

EXAMPLE. The day fair, we started on our journey.

Completed. The day being fair, we started on our journey.

1. Moses, his lessons, recited them well.

2. We saw a boy in the river.

3. Dinner , the party sat down.

4. The carriage , Robert has taken it to the blacksmith's, to get it .

5. My dog sick, I could not go a hunting.

6. I have just seen a man killed by from the top of a house.

7. My friend, while out on horseback, was thrown and seriously injured.

8. I saw the Confederate flag from the City Hall.

9. You may often see bad boys in the street.

10. Our house , we are about to move into it.

11. The merchant spends his time in and goods.

12. Gas is useful for streets and houses.

13. Oxen are used for wagons.

14. Ships, while on the ocean, often encounter violent storms.

15. The weather we must have a fire .

16. From this eminence my eyes upon the vast plain that lay before me, I saw a herd of buffaloes amid the long prairie-grass, and a group of wild horses away in the far distance.

17. He was a bad man, and died, and by all that knew him.

 CHAPTER XXI. A REVIEW.

[For the answers to the following questions, see Chapters XV., XVII., XVIII., XIX., and XX.]

What is the subject of a verb?

How may you find the subject of a verb?

What may a verb have for its subject?

What is the object of a verb?

What other parts of speech, besides transitive verbs, may have an object?

How may you find the object of a verb or proposition?

What is a pronoun?

Name the classes of pronouns.

What is a personal pronoun? Mention the personal pronouns.

What is a relative pronoun? Mention the relative pronouns.

What is an interrogative pronoun? Mention the interrogative pronouns.

What is an adjective pronoun? Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns.

What is a relative clause?

What is the antecedent of a relative pronoun?

What is a participle?

How many participles has a transitive verb? an intransitive verb?

Mention the participles of the verb ask. Mention those of the verb dream.

What is a participial clause?

EXERCISE.

Where a dash occurs, put its one or more words, as may be required to complete the sense.

 THE TAME BEAR.

Hans Christian Anderson, the German writer, tells us the following—story of a tame bear, which broke loose while the man —exhibiting him was—dinner. He made his way to —public house,—, and went straight—where there was three children, the eldest—whom was no more than six or eight—old. “The door sprang open, and in walked—. The children were much frightened—, and crept—corners. The bear followed—, and rubbed them with—nose, but he did not—. When the children—, they thought it was a big dog, and they patted,—, and—. The eldest boy now—his drum, and began to—loud noise. No sooner did the bear—, than he raised himself on—and began to dance. This was charming.

The boys had been playing at soldiers before—, and now each — his gun and—. They gave the bear a gun, too, and he— like a regular militia-man. Then they marched; what a fine comrade—!

Presently, however, the door—again. It was the children's mother. You should have seen her; and her face was white as— and she trembled with fear when saw the—. Then the smallest — ran up to her, and shouted, ‘Mamma, mamma, we have had such—, playing soldier!’”

 CHAPTER XXII. SENTENCES, PHRASES, CLAUSES, APPOSITION.

What is a sentence?

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense.

How many kinds of sentences are there, and what are they?

Four kinds; declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

What is a declarative sentence?

A declarative sentence is one in which something is declared; as, “It rains.”

What is an imperative sentence?

An imperative sentence is one in which permission is given, or a command, an exhortation, or an entreaty uttered; as, “Let it rain.”

What is an interrogative sentence?

An interrogative sentence is one in which a question is asked; as, “Does it rain?”

What is an exclamatory sentence?

An exclamatory sentence is one that contains an exclamation; as, “How it rains!”

Make two declarative sentences; two imperative; two interrogative; two exclamatory.

What is a phrase?

A phrase is a combination of words which separately have no connection, either in construction, or sense, with other words in the sentence, but which, when taken together, convey a single idea, and may be construed as a single word. Thus; “James, in short, has become a hermit,” — in this sentence, in short is a phrase.

What is a clause?

A clause is a combination of words which separately may or may not be connected in construction with other words in the sentence: if so connected, they assert some additional circumstance respecting the leading proposition; as, “James, who had been on the watch, espied a sail:” if not so connected, they assert an entirely independent proposition; as, Stephen sailed for Florida, but he was wrecked on the voyage. In these sentences the words in italics are clauses.

What is a relative clause?

A clause containing a relative pronoun; as, “James, for whom I felt so much anxiety, has arrived.”

What is a participial clause?

A clause containing a participle; as “The rest of the company having arrived, went to dinner.”

What is an adverbial clause?

A clause that performs the office of an adverb, and generally expresses time, place, or manner; as, “A thousand years hence, all these things will have passed away.”

What a vocative clause?

A clause containing the name of an object addressed, with its adjuncts; as, “My dear friend, I hope to meet you soon.”

When is one noun said to be in apposition with another? When it refers to the same object, and is in the same construction; as, “Paul, the Apostle”—Apostle is in apposition with Paul.

May more than one of the clauses enumerated above, occur in the same sentence?

They may.

Does every sentence contain one of these clauses?

No; there are some simple sentences that do not contain any of these clauses; as, “I love my mother.”

ORAL EXERCISE.

Tell to what class each of the following sentences belong. When a clause occurs, tell what kind of a clause it is.

1. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness!

2. There are men in the world, who are dead to every generous impulse.

3. Have you heard the news that has just been received by the steamer?

4. Rising from his seat, the monarch gazed around; and, darting a look of scorn on his humbled courtiers, bade them leave his presence till they should become honest men.

5. My son, do you indulge in anger?

6. O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo?

7. Who ever hears of fat men heading a riot, or herding together in turbulent mobs?

8. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds.

9. The ship being now under sail, the shore began to recede rapidly from our sight.

10. Lord Hastings, who had bore himself most bravely throughout the whole battle, escaped with a slight wound.

11. James, whom I sent to the river an hour ago, has not yet returned.

12. What an accident! Did you ever witness a scene like this?

13. Where Freedom rears her banner, a new empire has arisen.

 CHAPTER XXIII. COMPOSITION.

What is the term “Composition” derived from?

It is derived from two Latin words, which signify “to put together.”

What is “composition” then?

It is a “putting together.”

Can we speak of the “composition” of a substance, like paste or varnish?

We can.

What do we mean by it?

We mean “the putting together” of the material of which the substance is made up.

When we speak of the “composition” of a picture, what do we mean?

We mean “the putting together” of the different objects which make up the picture; as, a mountain, trees, a river, & c.When we speak of a “composition” on any subject, what do we mean?

We mean “a putting together” of the thoughts which belong to the subject.

Suppose you were to write “Grass is green;” “Birds sing;” “John is blind;” would that be composition?”

It would not.

Why?

Because the thoughts are not connected with each other, nor with a subject.

Suppose you take for your subject, “A blind boy;” and write, “John is blind; he cannot see that the grass is green, but he can hear the birds sing:” is that “composition?”

It is.

Why?

Because the three thoughts, “John is blind,” “Grass is green,” “Birds sing,” are connected with each other, and with the subject, “A blind boy.”

How, then, can thoughts which are independent of each other, often be united?

By introducing another thought which will connect them.

Give an example.

In the example, “John is blind; he cannot see that the grass is green, but he can hear the birds sing,”—the two thoughts, “he cannot see,” “but can hear,” connect the three independent thoughts, “John is blind,” “Grass is green,” “Birds sing.”

Are there not many thoughts belonging to every subject?

There are.

How should these be “put together?”

They should be so “put together,” that they will appear to follow each other in a natural order.

In what, then, does “composition” consist?

It consists in “putting together,” in a natural order, thoughts belonging to a subject.

 CHAPTER XXIV. DESCRIPTION.

What has “Composition” been defined to be?

Composition has been defined to be “a putting together” of thoughts under a subject.

Are there not many kinds of composition?

There are.

What is the first kind of composition?

“Descriptive” is the first principal kind of composition. What is “description?”

It is “a putting together” of our impression of any object or scene.

Why is this called the first kind of composition?

Because it relates to that which we see, and that which we see, lies at the beginning of Thought.

How, only, can we learn to describe well?

By studying attentively, the object or scene which we wish to describe.

What is necessary to a good description?

That those particulars be given, in which the object or scene differs from other objects or scenes.

If I were to ask you to describe your kitten, and you should say, “It has whiskers, four legs, and a tail,” would that be a good description?

It would not.

Why not?

Because it mentions only things which are common to all kittens, and does not describe any particular one.

Suppose you were to say instead, “It has a glossy black fur, a white diamond between its eyes, and one white whisher,” would that be a good description?

It would be.

Why?

Because it describes particulars which distinguish the kitten from other kittens?

Do not such particulars enable us to distinguish objects of the same kind from each other?

They do.

Could not a dog be distinguished among a hundred others, by one who was familiar with it?

It could.

What, then, is a good rule for describing an object?

To give those particulars by which we know it from other objects of the same kind.

What is a scene?

A scene is a combination of objects.

How, then, should a scene be described?

By giving those particulars, in the objects and their arrangement; by which it is distinguished from other scenes.

 SUBJECTS. DIRECTIONS TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 1.

You may take the subject which you will find upon the following page, and write your own answers to the questions.

Take each question by itself, and do your best to answer it fully; using the same language as in speaking. When you have done this, join these answers together in correct sentences.

Your composition will then be done, all except copying. In copying, the principal things to remember are these:

TO WRITE NEATLY.

TO SPELL CORRECTLY, AND

TO BEGIN EVERY NEW SENTENCE WITH A CAPITAL LETTER.

If you attend to these directions your composition will then be ready to hand to your teacher.

 SUBJECT NO. 1. STRAWBERRIES.

1. Is not the strawberry season always anticipated with great pleasure by the children?

2. How early does the plant begin to show its blossoms?

3. What kind of flowers are they?

4. When the flower disappears, what does it leave?

5. How long are these green clusters in ripening?

6. As soon as they begin to turn red, what do children do?

7. Where do they hunt for them?

8. Where do they find the largest ones?

9. Do not the bright red clusters look delicious?

10. Do not more berries go into mouths, than into baskets, generally?

11. Are not strawberries a favorite fruit with almost every one?

12. Are they not much cultivated in gardens?

13. Do they not sometimes grow to a large size?

14. How large have you seen them?

 TO THE PUPIL SUBJECT NO. 1.

Strawberries are the earliest of all the berries in summer. On this account, as well as because they are the most delicious of all, every one looks forward with great pleasure to the time when they will be ripe. You can mention how early children begin to watch the buds and blossoms of this little plant in the field and by the wayside. You can describe the clusters of white blossoms, and their gradual change into ripe, red berries; then the joy of the children; the plans they form for their holiday afternoons; their pleasant excursions in parties, with baskets and tin pails, to hunt for the red treasures; in what kind of places they look for them; where they find the largest, and how many they sometimes bring home: also, how you like best to eat them.

You can describe, too, the manner in which this fruit is cultivated in gardens, and the size to which it sometimes grows.

 SUBJECT NO. 2. ANTS.

1. Do not ants seem to be about as busy creatures as bees?

2. Are they as useful to us as bees?

3. What do bees furnish us with?

4. May we not, however, learn something from the ant?

5. How do they show industry and perseverance?

6. What kind of houses do they live in?

7. Do they build these themselves?

8. If any accident happens to their dwelling, what do they do?

9. Are they ever out of patience or discouraged?

10. Are not such accidents very frequent?

11. How do they provide for the future?

12. What may we learn from them in this?

13. Are they not enterprising little creatures?

14. Have you ever seen one carrying a burden much larger than himself?

15. How did he manage?

16. What other facts do you know about these little insects?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 2.

Solomon, who you know was the wisest of men, says, “Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise;” which shows that he himself had learned lessons of industry from this little insect.

You must observe: he says, “Consider her ways;” which means, we must study the movements of the little creatures, watch their going-in and their coming out, and find out, if we can, the purpose of each movement; for you will learn, by watching them, that each purpose has a purpose. All this you must do; and in addition to your own observations, you should find out from books, or by asking questions, as much as possible about the habits of this little insect, and any interesting facts or anecdotes concerning them. In this way, you will find more than enough material for one composition. If you choose, you may divide the questions, and write twice upon this subject.

 SUBJECT NO. 3. FROGS.

1. What kind of looking creatures are frogs?

2. What sort of places do they live in?

3. What do they live upon?

4. What kind of a noise do they make?

5. Is it not one of the first sounds in spring?

6. Is it a pleasant sound?

7. Does it not express contentment as much as the singing of birds?

8. Is it not easy to see how birds can be happy, hopping about in the trees?

9. Are not frogs just as happy in dirty marshes and pools?

10. Has not God made every creature for some particular place?

11. Would a frog enjoy himself if he were to change places with a bird?

12. What lesson can we learn from this thought?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 3.

The peeping of these strange creatures is one of the earliest indications of the approach of summer. On this account, it is a delightful sound to every one. You can describe the feeling of pleasure with which you always hear it for the first time, after winter has departed, and all the pleasant visions it brings to your mind of the coming summer; of blue skies, and soft, warm air; of walks in the woods, wild flowers, and green moss. You can describe the haunts of these creatures,— some of them in pleasant places; their queer noises and sudden jumps,— what these mean. You can compare their life with that of a bird. If you choose, instead of writing answers to the questions, you may write a story of a discontented frog who thought he would try a bird's life, his adventures, and how at last he became a contented frog.

 SUBJECT NO. 4. FLIES.

1. Are not flies the most common of insects?

2. Do they sting like musquitoes?

3. Are they not, however, sometimes very troublesome?

4. How are they troublesome?

5. What do they like best to eat?

6. Are they not most abundant in very warm weather?

7. Is it easy to drive one away when he makes up his mind to attack you?

8. What kind of traps do people set for them?

9. How does the fly get caught?

10. Are not great numbers often destroyed in this way?

11. What is the greatest enemy of the fly?

12. How does the spider catch it?

13. How do flies manage to walk on the ceiling?

14. Could a bird walk so?

15. Do flies like cold weather?

16. What becomes of them in winter?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 4.

You can speak particularly of the troublesome character of this insect,—the annoying way in which it will return, again and again, after being driven off. You can describe one of these attacks upon yourself, and mention which at last gained the victory, you or the fly. You can also give a full description of the manner in which the spider constructs his web, and manages to catch the fly.

If you will consider a moment, it will seem quite wonderful to you that a fly can walk upon the ceiling: you know a bird could not walk so. If you cannot give the reason yourself, you should ask some one to explain it to you; and when you have obtained a clear idea of all these particulars, you should try to describe them accurately in your composition.

 SUBJECT NO. 5. BIRD'S NESTS.

1. Where do birds generally build their nests?

2. Why do they build them so high?

3. What is the outside of the nest made of?

4. What is the inside lined with?

5. Where do birds get the materials for their nests?

6. Do they collect it together, and carry it in one load in their claws?

7. How do they manage it?

8. Is not a bird's-nest full of young birds, or of little blue eggs, a pretty sight?

9. Is it not cruel to rob a bird's nests?

10. How does the old bird feel when any one is near her nest?

11. How does she show her distress?

12. Do the birds leave their nests when they fly off to the south, or do they take them?

14. Will they not build other nests when they return in the spring?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 5.

Have you ever found in the Fall, after the cold winds had come, or in winter, half full of snow, a little bird's nest; and examined how neatly it was woven together,— the outside of rough sticks and leaves, and the inside lined so delicately with soft hair? If you have, you can describe all this in your own way, and mention where and how you found the nest, and to what bird it probably belonged.

You can describe, also, under the questions, the process of building a nest; the appearance of a nest full of eggs, or of little birds; the actions of the young birds while you were near the nest; the movements and cries of distress of the mother, the manner in which the old bird feeds the young ones; what she gives them to eat; and what becomes of the nest when the little birds have learned to fly.

 SUBJECT NO. 6. CHESNUTS.

1. What tree do these nuts grow upon?

2. What kind of a bur are they inclosed in?

3. When do these burs open?

4. What becomes of the nut when the bur opens?

5. Is not this time eagerly watched for?

6. Are not nutting excursions then all the fashion?

7. Are these not delightful?

8. Is it always easy to find the nuts?

9. What sometimes covers them up?

10. Do not the nuts sometimes stick in the burs?

11. Is it not great work for boys to shake them down?

12. Is it not pleasant to take home a good basket full of nuts?

13. What is done with them in the evening, sometimes?

14. Are not these nutting excursions the pleasantest things in autumn?

15. Are they not the last of the season?

16. How do the woods begin to look?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 6.

In mentioning the chesnut-tree, you can compare it with the oak, and speak of the difference between the two trees, in their general appearance and the manner in which their branches grow, shape of the leaf, & c. You can describe the appearance of the chesnut-tree when in blossom, the kind of flower it bears, and the clusters of green burs which succeed the flower. Also, the effect of the frost upon these burs, and the eagerness with which children watch for the dropping of the nuts; the excursions into the woods which take place; the shuffling and poking among the dry leaves; the gathering of the nuts; the pleasure of bringing them home; then of boiling them and sharing them with friends.

You can speak of these excursions into the wood as being the last of the season, and describe the signs of the coming winter,—cold winds, bare trees, & c.

 SUBJECT NO. 7. KATY-DIDS.

1. What do Katy-dids look like?

2. What color are they?

3. Is not their note very peculiar?

4. What does it sound like?

5. How do they make it?

6. When do we first begin to hear them in summer?

7. Do they not seem always to be contradicting each other?

8. What does one side say?

9. What do the others reply?

10. Do they ever seem to come to any agreement about Katy?

11. Do they not take up the same old tune every summer?

12. Has any one ever found out yet what Katy did?

13. Do you suppose any one ever will find out?

14. Is it likely the Katy-dids and Katy-didn'ts ever will agree?

15. Does not this show how hard it is for people to stop when they once begin to contradict?

16. Should it not be a warning every one to be very careful about beginning a dispute?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 7.

You can describe, very particularly, the appearance of this curious insect, and the manner in which it produces the peculiar sound from which it takes its name.

You can speak of the time in the summer when this note begins to be heard, and describe a concert of summer evening sounds; the various notes which mingle with those of the Katy-did; and the peculiar effect, like that of perpetual contradiction, produced by this insect.

You can, if you please, write an imaginary story of the manner in which this quarrel originated, and add any reflections which may occur to you upon the habit of contradiction, and the determination to have the last word in a dispute.

 SUBJECT NO 8. APPLE-TREES.

1. Are apple trees graceful?

2. Are they not generally low and crooked?

3. Are they not easy trees to climb?

4. If they were lofty, like the elm, would it not be difficult to gather the fruit?

5. Are not all associations with this tree very pleasant?

6. Are they not beautiful when they are laden with the blossoms?

7. What color are their blossoms?

8. Have they not a delicious fragrance?

9. When the flowers disappear, what succeeds?

10. How long does it take for the little green apples to ripen?

11. How does the tree look when laden with ripe fruit?

12. When the red and golden apples begin to drop, is it not pleasant to gather them?

13. What is the first thing to be done every morning?

14. If there has been a high wind, is not the ground strewn with them?

15. What is done with the apples?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 8.

You can speak of the ease with which this tree is climbed, and of other reasons why it is a favorite with children; and describe its appearance in the different seasons: beginning with spring, when it is covered with its beautiful pink and white blossoms; then, when these blossoms begin to fall, the showers of white leaves and the delightful odors which fill the air; the curious little green things which the flowers leave behind them; the slow growth of these into rich, ripe apples; the appearance of the tree when the fruit is ripe, sometimes bending under its red and golden burden; and the way it which the branches are prevented from breaking off, when they are too heavily laden. Describe, also, the gathering of the fruit, and mention what is done with the different kinds of apples and all the various uses of this fruit.

 SUBJECT NO. 9 RAIN

1. Where does rain come from?

2. How doos it get into the clouds?

3. If it were not for rain, would not every thing upon the earth die?

4. In summer, do not many weeks often pass away without any?

5. How does every thing look then?

6. Does not rain always come at last?

7. Is it not delightful to see the clouds roll up, and the drops begin to fall?

8. Does not the grass begin to grow green again immediately?

9. How does the air feel, and every thing look, after the shower?

10. Do not children always like rain when it does not spoil their plans?

11. If they are planning an excursion, do they like to see the clouds?

12. Do they not always try to think it will not rain?

13. If the rain does come, ought they to complain?

14. Is it not always good for the earth?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 9.

You will be able to answer the first question; but perhaps you may not know how the rain gets into the clouds. This you must learn by asking your Teacher.

You can describe the appearance of every thing in summer, when several weeks have passed without rain,—so dried up; the grass scorched and withered; and the air filled with dust, and every body uncomfortable; then the shower, which always comes at last; the delight of every one, when the clouds are seen rolling up; the falling of the rain; the overflowing of the streets; then the bursting forth of the sun; the freshened air, and the altered appearance of the landscape. You can speak, also, of the manner in which children sometimes complain of the rain, when it interferes with their plains; and give the reasons why this is wrong.

 SUBJECT NO. 10. FROST.

1. When does frost first come?

2. Does it not make sad work with the beautiful summer flowers?

3. Before it comes, how do they look?

4. After it, is not everything changed?

5. What becomes of the grass and flowers?

6. Are not the trees the only thing which the frost does not spoil?

7. What does it do to them?

8. Do their bright colors last long?

9. What do they gradually turn into?

10. What becomes of the leaves finally?

11. Are not the trees left bare?

12. Do not the cold winds begin to whistle through them then?

13. Is not this a sign that winter is coming?

14. Is it not pleasant, then, to gather round the bright fire in the house?

15. Do not the evenings begin to grow long then?

16. How is it pleasant to spend them?

 TO THE PUPIL. SUBJECT NO. 10.

You can describe the gradual signs of Jack Frost's approach in the chill September nights, growing colder and colder, till finally he makes his appearance; then the change which comes over every thing; the desolation of the gardens, as frost after frost passes over them; every thing a dull, dead brown except the trees; the beautiful colors with which these are adorned; the gradual fading of these bright leaves, till finally they drop off; then the bare appearance of the trees; the darkened, chilly skies; the whistling of November winds, and the freezing temperature.