GEOGRAPHY, a description of the surface of the earth.

NATURAL, caused by the laws of nature—God's handiwork.

POLITICAL, caused by the laws of man.

GEOLOGY, a description of the strata, or layers of earth, stone, metals, &c. of which the earth's crust is composed.

SEA, a large body of water.

LAKE, a large body of fresh water (rarely salt water).

OCEAN, a large sea—the mother of seas.

STRAIT, a narrow channel, or water-passage, connecting seas or lakes.

CHANNEL, a wide strait, or water-passage.

The map of the world shows two hemispheres—one is called “the Eastern,” the other “the Western” Hemisphere.

The map of North America shows you two great chains of mountains: one of them is called the Rocky Mountains; the other, the Alleghany Mountains. They were caused by the action of the internal fires of the earth, which, by coming in

In consequence of the similar direction of the mountain ranges of North America, their great length, and the nature of the country between them, nearly all the water that is shed from the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, and nearly all that comes from the western slope of the Alleghanies, finds its outlet, through the Mississippi River, to the Gulf of Mexico.

This is the longest, if not the largest, river of the world. From its extreme sources, where the Missouri rises among the Rocky Mountains, or where the Mississippi branch approaches the British possessions on the north, to the Gulf of Mexico, is about 4,000 miles. And its tributaries, which are very numerous, are themselves larger than many of the great rivers of other lands. The Ohio, which empties into the Mississippi, 1,000 miles from its mouth, is navigable for 1,000 miles above that point. The Tennessee, which empties into the Ohio, is navigable about 800 miles.

The principal branches of the Mississippi, that shed the water of the Rocky Mountains, are the following:—

With their branches, such as—

Those which conduct the water from the Allegheny water-shed are the following:—

If all, or a greater part, of these rivers were to rise at one time, the whole valley of the Mississippi would be submerged, from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico. And it often happens that that great river, which is nearly two miles wide and 100 feet deep, rises, by reason of the rains upon the mountains, to the height of forty and fifty feet above its lower level, and, overflowing the delta which it has deposited along its banks, it pours a mighty tide of muddy waters downward towards the Gulf, extending from 15 to 25 miles in breadth.

This river is connected, viâ the Illinois and Chicago Rivers, by a canal, with Lake Michigan.

The chief rivers of the eastern slope of the Alleghany range are,—

The St. Lawrence river drains the great northern valley or lake region, and is remarkable for its beautiful and varied scenery, its numerous islands, its high tides, &c.

Its course is north-east, while the rivers between it and the Gulf of Mexico run southwards.

The Niagara (the Indian pronunciation is Neeawgaura), one of the tributaries of the St. Lawrence, is remarkable among all the rivers of the globe for its fall from a precipice about 500 feet in height, measuring to the bottom of the river, which is very deep; and 160 feet from the top of the fall to the surface of the river below. There are higher water-falls in other countries, but they do not present such a vast body of water falling continuously from such a height.

The principal rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean are—

There is also a large stream which empties northwards into the Polar Sea, called the Mackenzie River.

The other rivers of the Pacific coast are inconsiderable in size, in consequence of the nearness of the adjacent range of mountains to the ocean.

North America is remarkable among all the countries of the earth for its beautiful and magnificent lakes and inland seas.

You will perceive upon the map a chain of large bodies of fresh water connected by navigable water-courses, and extending over a district of country more than 1,000 miles in length

These lakes are surrounded by fertile lands, mineral tracts of inexhaustible supply of the most useful metals and stone, and forests of the most valuable kinds of timber. They also contain plentiful supplies of the finest fish.

Lake Superior spreads over a surface of nearly 50,000 square miles, which is about equal to the whole extent of England.

Lake Michigan is nearly 400 miles in length.

This immense system of lakes and inland seas and bays purifies the air, conveys the rich products of the country to distant markets, and moderates the climate.

There are, also, innumerable small lakes and ponds scattered profusely over the country, from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, but chiefly confined to the northern latitudes.

There are three means by which vessels can sail from any port on Lake Superior to the Atlantic Ocean.

For the distance of some 23 degrees north and south of the equator there is a zone, or belt of the earth, in which nearly all tropical vegetation flourishes in great luxuriance in the low, rich, wet lands; and to a less extent as you ascend the mountain tracts, until it disappears amid the cold of elevated lands. Here the Palm-tree grows, the Banana, the Oleander, the Magnolia, the Cocoanut-tree, &c.∗ ∗The cocoanut palm affords the people its shade to shelter them from the hot sun; its fruit is their food; its boughs thatch the roofs and sides of their houses; its juice makes a drink for them somewhat like milk; they make baskets out of its wood; its leaves make fans and umbrellas; they make clothes out of its trunk; the shell of its fruit is made into goblets; its fibres are twisted into ropes and fishing-lines; its balsam is used as medicine; and its wood is used in cooking! This is the home of the Coffee, the Cocoa, the Orange, the Lemon, the Fig, the Pomegranate, the Pine-apple, &c.

Thence, vegetation changes as you proceed north and southward; and evergreens and “deciduous” trees (trees whose leaf falls in autumn) flourish up to the 50th, and even as far as the 60th degree of latitude.

Here is the home of the Oak, the Chestnut, the Hickory, the Pine, the Cedar, Maple, &c. Here the Apple and the Pear and the Peach choose their dwelling-place, by the laws which God has appointed them. Corn, Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rice, Cotton, Sugar-cane, &c., clothe these regions with luxuriant harvests.

Above and beyond these regions is the cold climate of Mosses, and the few trees and shrubs that can stand a polar winter, or vegetate in a short polar summer. Among the few grains of polar regions Buck-wheat is the most prominent.

There are separate and distinct homes accorded to different varieties of the animal kingdom. But many of the higher orders of animals can live in any climate.

The Whale prefers the polar seas, but is sometimes found in the lower latitudes.

The Bear prefers the temperate zone, but is found occasionally in the warmest climates, and grows to an enormous size in polar regions, where, however he becomes white; but the Walrus and the Penguin are never found except among the icebergs of the polar seas; while the Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Alligator, or Crocodile, live only in the tropics, as their food grows there alone.

The Horse finds his home in the temperate zones; but he is found also in the lower regions of polar circles, and in the tropics.

The Cat family, to which the lion and the tiger belong, differ in size, colour, &c., according to their climates; but their development is greatest in the plains and jungles of Africa and Asia.

The highest and noblest of the Creator's works is Man.

The earth, with its treasures of mineral wealth, its vegetable and animal kingdoms, and its movements and relations to the sun, the moon, and the stars of heaven, causing the grateful changes of night and day, seed-time and harvest, summer and winter, the rise and fall of tides, &c., was made and prepared by the Creator as a residence and home for man.

“In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.”

The heavens were the home of angels.

But for many ages the earth remained an empty black crust of cooling lava. “The earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep.”

“And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters, And God said, LET THERE BE LIGHT; and there was light. And God saw the light that it was good.” As soon as God made the light, vegetable and animal life also came into being.

For some two thousand years mankind multiplied exceedingly throughout the earth. And in those days men lived much longer, and grew to a larger size than they do now.

But, in process of time, men became so wicked and corrupt before God, that He sent a deluge upon the earth, and destroyed man and beast from off the face of the whole earth.

Noah, and his sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, were saved in the Ark which God had directed them to build; and with them such animals as God selected.

“And of them the whole earth was overspread.”

As God had set His bow in the cloud as a sign and seal of His covenant with Noah, that “He would not again destroy all flesh from off the earth,” it became necessary that He should adopt some other means by which to check the universal tendency of mankind to impiety and wickedness. He therefore divided the speech or languages of men at Babel.

By this means, and by the diverse climates in which men live, and their different modes of life, nations have been kept distinct; and men have become separated into races, of different colour, as well as government.

The division of mankind into nations is as follows:—

A hereditary government is one in which the supreme authority descends from father to son, or, if there be no son, to the next nearest relative.

An elective government is one in which the head of the Government is elected by the people, or by electors chosen by the people.

Again, governments are divided into absolute and limited. An absolute government is one in which the will of the sovereign is the law of the land, and he is unrestrained by a written constitution, or by other laws.

A limited government is one in which the power of the sovereign or supreme magistrate is restrained by a written constitution, laws, or fixed principles.

The following table presents the government, the title of the chief magistrate, and the religion of the principal nations of the world:—

Another distinction in government is founded on the tenure by which the head of the government holds his office. If the head of the government retain his office during his life, he is called a king, an emperor, prince, grand duke, sultan, &c. If he be chosen for a limited period, he is called a president or director, &c.

Most of the countries in Asia and Africa, as well as the Islands of the Pacific Ocean not colonized by Europeans, are under an absolute government, and are generally either of the Mohammedan or Pagan religion. Their sovereign princes are called emperors, as in China and Japan; pacha, as in Egypt; shah, as in Persia; kings, as among many of the African nations; chiefs, &c.

Among all these nations, the first rank, in extent of commerce, colonial possessions, and other elements of political importance, is accorded to Great Britain; and her Sovereign gave the true reason of her wealth and majesty, when, in answer to the enquiry of some Africans, she pointed to the Bible. France and America rank next, in importance and power.

The great cities of ancient time were south of latitude 40° N. Nineveh, Babylon, Tyre, Sidon, Damascus, Cairo, Thebes, Jerusalem, Athens, Troy, and other once large and powerful cities, were all south of 40°. The progress of civilization, and wealth, and empire, has moved north and west.

Its first step was from Athens to Rome; thence to Paris; thence to London, which is now the largest, most wealthy, powerful, and commercial city of the world.

Cities of the CONFEDERATE STATES of AMERICA:—

RICHMOND, Va. (present population about 70,000), is the capital of the Confederate States of America. It is situated on the James River, at the head of steamboat navigation, where the Falls of the river afford very large water-power for its mills and foundries; and railroads and canals connect it with the neighbouring States. It has been remarkable for the elegance and refinement of its people, who, like the citizens of Norfolk, are as hospitable as they are intelligent and noble. Commerce and manufactures will probably enlarge its wealth and population.

These States abound in every variety of scenery.

Tockoa Falls are in the State of Georgia, at Cunawhee Mountain, where the creek flows over a precipice 187 feet high; the creek is usually but twenty feet wide, but when swelled by rains, it presents a large body of water in an unbroken cascade, and is very beautiful.

The Falls of the Towaliga, in the same State, are very picturesque. The creek is 300 feet wide, and its descent is broken into falls and rapids, amid a wild and rough country. One of these falls is fifty feet. The Falls of the Tullulah, or Terrora (which is an Indian word for Terror), are in Habersham County, Ga. The granite chasm through which the stream rushes down, is one thousand feet high, and about the same width. The cataract is about sixty feet.

“Rock Mountain” with its tower, near the Chatahoochee river, presents an almost precipitous cliff of one thousand feet in height, whence the view is very extensive and beautiful.

In South Carolina there is a fine waterfall called “Charashilactay,” where the stream leaps from a mural precipice that is somewhat remarkable in its character.

“The Natural Bridge” is a celebrated arch of solid rock, spanning a chasm, through which Cedar Creek flows, in Rockbridge County, Va. The bridge is less than 260 feet in height, although it has been represented as 270 feet by some travellers. It is regarded as one of the great natural curiosities of the world. A stage road passes over its arch. The scenery is wild and impressive.

The Mammoth Cave in Kentucky is also one of the great natural curiosities of the world. It has been explored for fifteen miles, and is found to possess vast chambers adorned with immense pendent stalactites, and having unfathomable depths of dark silent waters, in which are sightless fish, and many other remarkable things. Nitre or saltpetre is found in this cave.

The most beautiful and variegated scenery is found along the banks of the Tennessee River, where it forces its way through the Cumberland Hills; and the University of the South has been located amid this grand and impressive scenery, upon the Sewanee Mountain, near Chattanooga, Ga. The scenery of the Southern States affords every variety of landscape, from the sublimity of the “Peaks of Otter,” to the beauty of the prairie.

In addition to the animals already mentioned, there are the other varieties peculiar to the zone. The Cat family, which becomes lions and tigers in Africa and Asia, exists here as the panther and cougar, the wild cat, &c.

The Dog family becomes the prairie wolf or wild dog, and the large wolf, &c. The prairie dog is gregarious; and though small in size, and timid when confronted by man, is very fierce and rapacious when hungry and numerous, or when defending their homes. They burrow in the ground, and form large and populous colonies on the great prairies.

The bear is a ferocious and destructive animal, but confined to the mountains and forests. Wild horses and buffaloes range the vast and fertile plains of the West. Deer and other wild game are abundant in the valley of the Mississippi. The alligator finds his home amid the swamps and pools of the Gulf regions; where, with the moccasin, the copper-head, and other venomous snakes, he basks in the sun, amid “the Victoria regia” and other flowers, whose fragrance and beauty are unsurpassed by the flowers of royal gardens.

There are many varieties of “the Falcon family,” from the noble eagle to the small but swift sparrowhawk; and they subserve a wise and useful purpose in preying upon vermin and reptiles, occasionally levying a tax upon the farmer's lambs, or chickens. These birds devour large quantities of mice and rats, serpents, squirrels, &c., which would destroy the farmer's crops.

“The vulture” of the East becomes “the Turkey buzzard” of the Southern States, and is a valuable scavenger, whose sight and smell are so wonderfully developed, that they can discover the presence of a small piece of meat at the distance of many miles. The crow and the blackbird consume enormous quantities of living as well as dead animals, and are invaluable to the farmer.

The whip-poor-will, the martin, the swallow, &c. devour incredible numbers of insects, which would otherwise render human life almost impossible. The beetle follows in the track of the larger animals, and carefully buries and consumes their excrement, thus converting that which would become offensive and malarious into a means of cultivating and enriching the soil. Meanwhile, endless varieties of earthworms, locusts, ants, &c., are constantly employed in tunnelling and turning up the soil, that it may not only condense the miasma and impurities of the air which thus gets access to it, but also be enriched by the exuviæ of animal and vegetable life, and their own carcases, which they convey there.

The mocking-bird or nightingale, the cat-bird, the thrush, and many other varieties of birds of song, fill the groves and hedges with their music. The swan, wild geese, ducks, and other water-fowl, with their diversity of plumage, enrich and beautify the watercourses; and the humming-bird, with graceful motion and exquisite shape and colours, builds his nest in the woodbine that overhangs the doorways of the people. These are a few of the fauna of the Confederate States.

There are considerable quantities of cotton and woollen goods made in several of these States, but only for domestic consumption. Gunpowder is made in large quantities; guns, artillery, fixed ammunition, &c., are made in every variety, and of superior quality; leather, iron ware, furniture, carriages, ships, steam-boats, paper, &c., are produced in increasing quantities, and excellence; flour, meal, malt liquors, whiskey, and wine, are produced in every part of the country. Georgia is far in advance of all other States in manufactures; North Carolina and Virginia are next. Missouri and Kentucky also have considerable manufactures; but there is every advantage and facility afforded for the future development of a large manufacturing interest by the combination of three things—first, the great market now open for manufactured goods; second, the inexhaustible resources of water-power and coal, with which the whole country abounds; third, the ready access to abundant staples.